Chapter 6: Learning

Classical Conditioning Ivan Pavlov Terminology –Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS): evokes an unconditioned response without previous conditioning (meat powder) –Conditioned Stimulus (CS): a previously neutral stimulus that has, through conditioning, acquired the capacity to evoke a conditioned response (bell after conditioning)

Classical Conditioning –Unconditioned Response (UCR): an unlearned reaction to an unconditioned stimulus that occurs without previous conditioning (salivation before conditioning) –Conditioned Response (CR): a learned reaction to a conditioned stimulus that occurs because of previous conditioning (salivation after conditioning)

Classical Conditioning Neutral Stimulus: does not evoke a response (bell)

Figure 6.1 Classical conditioning apparatus

Figure 6.2 The sequence of events in classical conditioning

Figure 6.3 Classical conditioning of a fear response

Classical Conditioning: More Terminology Trial = pairing of UCS and CS Acquisition = initial stage in learning Stimulus contiguity = occurring together in time and space

Classical Conditioning: More Terminology 3 types of Classical Conditioning –Simultaneous conditioning: CS and UCS begin and end together –Short-delayed conditioning: CS begins just before the UCS, end together –Trace conditioning: CS begins and ends before UCS is presented

Processes in Classical Conditioning Extinction: the gradual weakening and disappearance of a conditioned response Spontaneous Recovery: reappearance of an extinguished response after a period of nonexposure to the conditioned stimulus

Processes in Classical Conditioning Stimulus Generalization: the organism that has learned a response to a specific stimulus responds in the same way to stimuli that are similar to the original stimulus Stimulus Discrimination: the organism that has learned a response to a specific stimulus does not respond in the same way to stimuli that are similar to the original stimulus Higher-order conditioning

Figure 6.7 Acquisition, extinction, and spontaneous recovery

Figure 6.10 Higher-order conditioning

Operant Conditioning or Instrumental Learning Edward L. Thorndike (1913) – the law of effect B.F. Skinner (1953) – principle of reinforcement –Operant chamber –Emission of response –Reinforcement contingencies –Cumulative recorder

Figure 6.12 Reinforcement in operant conditioning

Figure 6.13 Skinner box and cumulative recorder

Basic Processes in Operant Conditioning Acquisition Shaping: consists of the reinforcement of closer and closer approximations of a desired response Extinction: in operant conditioning this occurs if we stop providing reinforcement. Stimulus Control –Generalization –Discrimination

Table 6.1 Comparison of Basic Processes in Classical and Operant Conditioning

Reinforcement: Consequences that Strengthen Responses Primary Reinforcers –Satisfy biological needs Secondary Reinforcers –Conditioned reinforcement

Schedules of Reinforcement Continuous reinforcement Intermittent (partial) reinforcement –Ratio schedules Fixed (piece work on assembly line) Variable (slot machine) –Interval schedules Fixed (paycheck every two weeks) Variable (fishing)

Figure 6.17 Schedules of reinforcement and patterns of response

Consequences: Reinforcement and Punishment Increasing a response: –Positive reinforcement = response followed by rewarding stimulus –Negative reinforcement = response followed by removal of an aversive stimulus Escape learning Avoidance learning Decreasing a response: –Punishment –Problems with punishment

Figure 6.18 Positive reinforcement versus negative reinforcement

Figure 6.19 Escape and avoidance learning

Figure 6.20 Comparison of negative reinforcement and punishment

Changes in Our Understanding of Conditioning Biological Constraints on Conditioning –Instinctive Drift –Conditioned Taste Aversion –Preparedness and Phobias Cognitive Influences on Conditioning –Signal relations –Response-outcome relations Evolutionary Perspectives on learning

Figure 6.22 Conditioned taste aversion

Observational Learning: Basic Processes Albert Bandura (1977, 1986) –Observational learning: an organism’s response is influenced by the observation of others –Vicarious conditioning 4 key processes –attention –retention –reproduction –motivation acquisition vs. performance

Figure 6.25 Observational learning