Chapter 2 - Theories I.Questions/Controversies A.Nature vs. Nurture Nature = genetics Nurture = environment

Nature vs. nurture, cont. both are important most things are interactions

B.Continuity vs. Discontinuity Developmental changes are sudden or gradual Gradual/continuous = quantitative Sudden/discontinuous/discrete = qualitative

C.Universal vs. Culturally Specific (Deficit vs. Difference) - Culturalists = context determines development D.Active vs. Passive - tabula rasa ==> recipients - vs. seek information ==> creators

II. Freud - Psychoanalytic Theory 1.Importance of early experiences - birth to age 5 2.Intrapsychic focus - development within the mind - biological basis

3.Structures Id = present at birth - biological drives/instincts Ego = develops in 1 st year - how to satisfy id - practical & reality-based Superego = develops in 3 rd /4 th year - incorporate sense of right & wrong from parents

4.Psychosexual stages - Develop by progressing through stages - Stages = “sexual” gratification in different body parts - Conflict to be resolved at each stage

5.Unconscious conflict Between id & world/superego at each stage Ego tries to satisfy both Resolve conflict = progress through stages No resolution = fixation at that stage => psychological problems

Freud’s Stages AgePleasureDevelopment Infancy- oral/sucking Toddlerhood - anal/toileting -> Ego Preschool - phallic/genitals-> Superego Oedipal/Electra complex Elem. School - latency Adolescence - genital

III.Erikson- Psychosocial theory 1.Importance of social world 2.Focus is reality-oriented Ego - Development of ego within the social world 3.8 developmental stages - Pass via resolving conflicts - conflicts are social, not instinctual

Infant – Trust in caretaker & self Toddler – Self-control & pride Preschooler – Initiative School-age child – Industry Adolescent – Develop identity Young adult – Intimate relationship Mid-aged adult – Contribute to future Older adult – Integrity in life review

Erikson = Lifespan theory

IV. Piaget’s Cognitive- Developmental Theory 1.Development = thought processes - stages of more advanced cognition 2.Biology plus experience - An interaction: maturation plus experience - children actively seek information

3.Cognitive & social development - social behavior depends upon cognitive abilities -> cognitive development underlies all other development

V. Learning Theory We learn & thus develop constantly - from constant input from the environment - same processes for all development - learn increasing amounts via those processes

1.Behaviorism - study only observable behavior - all behavior determined by outside forces 3 major behaviorists

Watson - child = tabula rasa - environment determines person

Pavlov - Classical Conditioning - learn to associate 2 things that happen together in time

Unconditioned Stimulus (US) -> Unconditioned Response (UR) Neutral stimulus does not evoke Response If neutral stimulus always precedes US, neutral stimulus begins to evoke Response

Neutral stimulus becomes Conditioned Stimulus (CS) CS -> CR (Conditioned Response)

Skinner - Operant/Respondent Conditioning - behavior is governed by rewards & punishments

2.Bandura - Social Learning - Learn by observing others, not just own experience (adds cognition) - imitate a model

VI. Bronfenbrenner - Ecology Theory 1.Context determines development - development occurs differently depending upon the environment 2.Multiple contexts 3.Contexts interact and change each other

Systems: 1 st = Microsystem - immediate surroundings - interactions are bidirectional & reciprocal 2 nd = Mesosystem - interaction among microsystems

3 rd = Exosystem - other elements child is not part of, but is influenced by it indirectly 4 th = Macrosystem - society as a whole 5 th = Chronosystem - changes in systems over time - alter existing relationships

VII. Vygotsky - Sociocultural Theory How is culture transmitted

Culture transmitted…. Via interaction with adults & older children Help children master culturally-meaningful tasks Language/communication is critical -> children internalize dialogues & later use the language to help guide their own development

Piaget vs. Vygotsky A.Piaget: focus on child - children’s own efforts to understand world vs.Vygotsky: development is socially mediated - requires others

B.Piaget: children master same tasks vs.Vygotsky: cultures select different tasks C.Piaget: discrete stages vs.Vygotsky: development is continuous

Small-group discussion: How does one’s theoretical view of development affect the kinds of behaviors one notices? What behaviors would be observed by Freud, Piaget, an information-processing theorist, Skinner, Bandura, an ethological theorist, Bronfenbrenner when watching 2 children interact on a playground?