Psychological Science, 3rd Edition Michael Gazzaniga Todd Heatherton Diane Halpern

Introduction 1

What Are the Seven Themes of Psychological Science? How Did the Scientific Foundations of Psychology Develop? How Can We Apply Psychological Science? Questions to Consider:

What Are the Seven Themes of Psychological Science? Psychology Is an Empirical Science Nature and Nurture Are Inextricably Entwined The Brain and Mind Are Inseparable A New Biological Revolution Is Energizing Research The Mind Is Adaptive Psychological Science Crosses Levels of Analysis We Often Are Unaware of the Multiple Influences on How We Think, Feel, and Act

Learning Objective List and explain the seven themes of psychological science.

Psychology Is an Empirical Science The scientific method: objective, systematic procedures used to understand what is being studied Understanding how science is conducted makes it possible to tell which studies are credible and which are not

Nature and Nurture are Inextricably Intertwined Are psychological characteristics a product of nature or nurture? Biologically innate or acquired through education, experience, and culture Psychologists now widely recognize both as important

Nature and Nurture Are Inextricably Intertwined Changing beliefs about the influence of nature vs. nurture Schizophrenia Bipolar Disorder Posttraumatic Stress Disorder

The Brain and Mind Are Inseparable Descartes’ theory of dualism Maintained the distinction between mind and body Assigned the body many mental functions previously considered the mind’s domain Psychological scientists largely reject dualistic thinking Mind is what the brain does

A New Biological Revolution Is Energizing Research Growth in understanding mental activities’ biological bases Interest in biology permeates psychological science

A New Biological Revolution Is Energizing Research Three crucial developments Brain chemistry The human genome Watching the working brain

A New Biological Revolution Is Energizing Research Brain chemistry: Though it was long believed only a handful of neurotransmitters were involved in brain functions, in fact hundreds of substances play critical roles in mental activity and behavior New understanding of the brain’s chemical process has provided insight and enabled the development of treatments for psychological disorders

A New Biological Revolution Is Energizing Research The human genome: Scientists have mapped the basic genetic code for the human body Developed various techniques for discovering the links between genes and behavior Beginning to understand how situational contexts influence how genes are expressed

A New Biological Revolution Is Energizing Research Watching the working brain: Only since the late 1980s have researchers been able to study the working brain as it performs its vital psychological functions Many brain regions participate to produce mental activity and behavior

Phelps, Banaji, and their colleagues showed white college students pictures of unfamiliar black and white faces. When some of the participants viewed unfamiliar black faces, brain scans showed activation of the amygdala, a brain region associated with threat detection, and also of the anterior cingulate, which is associated with emotional response.

The Mind Is Adaptive The brain has evolved over millions of years to solve problems related to survival and reproduction Mind is adaptive in biological and cultural terms Genetic mutations

The Mind Is Adaptive Evolutionary theory: Determining whether human mechanisms are adaptive Need to be aware of the challenges of our ancestors in order to understand our current behavior Sweet and fatty foods

The Mind Is Adaptive Culture provides adaptive solutions: Dependency on group culture Cultural evolution has been much faster than biological evolution There is evidence that people from different cultures possess different minds Richard Nisbett

Psychological Science Crosses Levels of Analysis Four levels of analysis reflect the most common research methods for studying behavior: Biological Individual Social Cultural

Psychological Science Crosses Levels of Analysis Biological level of analysis The physical body contributes to mind and body Neurochemical ad genetic processes Individual level of analysis Differences in personality Mental processes that affect how people perceive the world

Psychological Science Crosses Levels of Analysis Social level of analysis Group contexts affect people’s ways of interacting and influencing each other Cultural level of analysis Different cultures shape thoughts, feelings, and actions of the people in them

We Are Unaware of Influences on How We Think, Feel, and Act People are influenced by subtle factors in their environments, even when they largely are unaware of those influences. Some factors influence our thoughts, feelings, and behaviors at an unconscious level

How Did the Scientific Foundations of Psychology Develop? Experimental psychology begins with structuralism Functionalism addresses the purpose of behavior Gestalt psychology emphasizes patterns and context in learning Women made pioneering contributions to psychology Freud emphasized the power of the unconscious Most behavior can be modified by reward and punishment Cognition affects behavior Social situations shape behavior Psychological therapy Is based on science

Learning Objective Trace the development of psychology since its formal inception in 1879, including differences among major schools of thought.

Experimental Psychology Begins with Structuralism History of experimental psychology: William Wundt developed the method of introspection A systematic examination of subjective mental experiences that requires people to inspect and report on the content of their thoughts.

Experimental Psychology Begins with Structuralism Edward Titchener pioneered structuralism: Based on the idea that conscious experience can be studied when it is broken down into its underlying components

Functionalism Addresses the Purpose of Behavior William James Critic of structuralism Coined the term “stream of consciousness” An ever-changing, continuous series of thoughts Proposed the approach of functionalism Argued that the functions of the mind, rather than its elements, should be the focus of psychologists

Gestalt Psychology Emphasizes Patterns and Context in Learning Second school of thought opposed to structuralism Personal experience is not simply the sum of its constituent parts Perception of objects is subjective and dependent on context

Women Made Pioneering Contributions to Psychology In the history of psychology, women have made pioneering contributions Mary Whiton Calkins Margaret Flay Washburn

Freud Emphasized the Power of the Unconscious Sigmund Freud is a key figure in the history of psychology Much of human behavior is determined by mental processes operating below the level of conscious awareness, at the level of the unconscious Pioneered the case study approach

Most Behavior Can Be Modified by Reward and Punishment John B. Watson Challenged the focus of psychology on conscious and unconscious mental processes Proposed the idea of behaviorism, an approach that emphasizes environmental effects on behavior

Cognition Affects Behavior George A. Miller defined the field of cognitive psychology Concerned with higher-order mental functions such as intelligence, thinking, language, memory, and decision making

Social Situations Shape Behavior Social psychology Focused on the power of the situation and on the way people are shaped through their interactions with others. Adolf Eichmann and the power of social situations

Psychological Therapy Is Based on Science A humanistic approach to the treatment of psychological disorders Developed in the 1950s Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow Emphasized how people can come to know and accept themselves in order to reach their unique potential.

This graph, adapted from data published by the American Psychological Association (APA), shows the great increase in this professional organization’s membership from 1900 to 2004.

How Can We Apply Psychological Science? Psychological Knowledge Is Used in Many Professions People Are Intuitive Psychological Scientists Psychological Science Requires Critical Thinking Psychologists Adhere to a Code of Ethics Psychology Is Relevant to Every Person’s Life

Learning Objectives Define critical thinking. Provide examples of psychology’s relevance to every person’s life.

Psychological Knowledge Is Used in Many Professions Psychological science’s content is of interest and value to many professions Physicians use knowledge of psychological science to better related to their patients, determine how patients’ behaviors are linked to health, and learn what motivates patients to seek out medical care (or not).

Psychological Knowledge Is Used in Many Professions Careers in which it is necessary to understand people also use psychological science. Lawyers, politicians, and advertisers Opportunities for people with graduate degrees expected to grow 15% between now and 2016

People Are Intuitive Psychological Scientists By nature, humans are intuitive psychological scientists Develop hypotheses about and try to predict others’ behavior

Psychological Science Requires Critical Thinking Critical thinking: Systematic way of evaluating information to reach reasonable conclusions Thinking that is purposeful, reasoned, and goal directed Used in solving problems, formulating inferences, calculating likelihoods, and making decisions

Psychologists Adhere to a Code of Ethics The American Psychological Association publishes a code of ethics that all its members must respect This code includes being respectful to all people, treating them with dignity, and protecting them from potential harm Ethical dilemmas

Psychology Is Relevant to Every Person’s Life The insights of psychology are critical in almost every sphere of our lives and its content Explicating how humans think, feel, and behave – it is universal