Business Research Process 1

Ethical Issues and the Research Process

Types of Ethical Violations Violating disclosure agreements Misrepresenting results Breaking confidentiality Deceiving participants Ethics are norms or standards of behavior that guide moral choices about our behavior and our relationships with others. The goal of ethics in research is to ensure that no one is harmed or suffers adverse consequences from research activities. Unethical activities are pervasive and include many types of activities. Some of these are listed in the slide. For some researchers, ethical and legal norms are the same. The text authors feel that legal constraints are the minimum standard but not the ideal. Padded invoices Avoiding legal liability

Ethical Treatment of Participants Do no harm Explain study benefits Explain participant rights and protections Research must be designed so that a participant does not suffer physical harm, discomfort, pain, embarrassment, or loss of privacy. This slide lists the three guidelines researchers should follow to protect participants. When discussing benefits, the researcher should be careful not to overstate or understate the benefits. Informed consent means that the participant has given full consent to participation after receiving full disclosure of the procedures of the proposed study. Obtain informed consent

Components of Informed Consent Researcher Intro Describe Survey Topic Describe geographic sample Reveal sponsor Describe purpose Good Faith Time Estimate Anonymity & confidentiality Research must be designed so that a participant does not suffer physical harm, discomfort, pain, embarrassment, or loss of privacy. This slide lists the three guidelines researchers should follow to protect participants. When discussing benefits, the researcher should be careful not to overstate or understate the benefits. Informed consent means that the participant has given full consent to participation after receiving full disclosure of the procedures of the proposed study. Voluntary Participation Item nonresponse acceptable Permission to begin

Characteristics of Informed Consent Competent to Give Consent Elements Knowledge of Risks Voluntary Consent Since 1966, all projects with federal funding are required to be reviewed by an Institutional Review Board (IRB). An IRB evaluates the risks and benefits of proposed research. The review requirement may be more relaxed for projects that are unlikely to be risky – such as marketing research projects. Many institutions require that all research – whether funded or unfunded by the federal government – be reviewed by a local IRB. The IRBs concentrate on two areas. First is the guarantee of obtaining complete, informed consent from participants. The second is the risk assessment and benefit analysis review. Complete informed consent has four characteristics and these are named in the slide. The participant must be competent to give consent. Consent must be voluntary, and free from coercion. Participants must be adequately informed to make a decision. Participants should know the possible risks or outcomes associated with the research. Adequately Informed

Ethical Responsibilities Special guidelines apply to children! Informed consent means parental approval. Special consideration is necessary when researching the behavior and attitudes of children. Besides providing informed consent, parents are often interviewed during the selection process to ensure that the child is mature enough and has the verbal and physical capabilities necessary.

Deception Disguising non-research activities Camouflaging true research objectives  Deception occurs when participants are told only part of the truth or when the truth is fully compromised. Deception occurs when the participants are only told part of the truth or when the truth is fully compromised. Deception can take two forms. One form relates to disguising nonresearch activities as opinion or business research. For instance, research might be used to collect data that are used to sell merchandise. Personal information could be collected for illegal purposes. Sometimes researchers use deception as part of a research design. It involves camouflaging the true research objects or the identity of the sponsor. This form of deception is used to prevent biasing respondents or to protect the confidentiality of a third party. Some researchers believe that deception should never occur. It is generally accepted in the industry that the benefits to be gained by appropriate research design-based deception should be balanced against the risks to the participants.

Protect confidentiality Reasons for Deception Prevent biasing participants Protect confidentiality of the sponsor  Deception occurs when participants are told only part of the truth or when the truth is fully compromised. Deception occurs when the participants are only told part of the truth or when the truth is fully compromised. Deception can take two forms. One form relates to disguising nonresearch activities as opinion or business research. For instance, research might be used to collect data that are used to sell merchandise. Personal information could be collected for illegal purposes. Sometimes researchers use deception as part of a research design. It involves camouflaging the true research objects or the identity of the sponsor. This form of deception is used to prevent biasing respondents or to protect the confidentiality of a third party. Some researchers believe that deception should never occur. It is generally accepted in the industry that the benefits to be gained by appropriate research design-based deception should be balanced against the risks to the participants.

Describe hypothesis, goal or purpose Debriefing Explain any deception Describe hypothesis, goal or purpose Share results In situations where participants are intentionally or accidentally deceived, they should be debriefed once the research is complete. Debriefing describes the goals of the research, as well as the truth and reasons for any deception. Results are shared after the study is complete. Participants who require any medical or psychological follow-up attention will receive it during the debriefing process. Provide follow-up

Protect Participant Confidentiality Obtain signed nondisclosure Non- disclosure of data subsets Restrict access to ID All individuals have a right to privacy, and researchers must respect that right. Once a guarantee of confidentiality is given, protecting that confidentiality is essential. Researchers protect participant confidentiality in several ways. Obtaining signed nondisclosure documents – only researchers who have signed nondisclosure forms should be allowed access to the data. Restricting access to participant identification. Revealing participant information only with written consent. Restricting access to data instruments where the participant is identified. Nondisclosure of data subsets. Methods 2-5 deal with minimizing the chance for a participant to identified and matched with his or her responses. Links between data and identifying information must be minimized. Interview response sheets should be inaccessible to everyone except the editors and data entry personnel. Data collection instruments may be destroyed once data are in a data file. For very small groups, data should not be made available if it would be easy to pinpoint a person in the group. Minimize instruments requiring ID Reveal only with written consent

Prior permission to interview Right to Privacy Right to refuse Prior permission to interview   For researchers to fully address participants’ right to privacy, they must also 1) inform participants of their right to refuse to answer any questions or participate in the study; 2) obtain prior permission to interview or observe participants; and 3) limit the time required for participation to limit the amount of information collected to only that which is deemed critical. Limit time required

Sponsor Confidentiality Sponsor Nondisclosure Purpose Nondisclosure   Some sponsors wish to undertake research without revealing themselves. They have a right to several types of confidentiality. Sponsor nondisclosure is used when the sponsor of the research restricts revealing the sponsorship. In this case, the sponsor may hire an outside firm to complete the research projects. Purpose nondisclosure is used when the sponsor camouflages the true research objective of the study. Findings nondisclosure is used when the sponsor restricts the researcher from discussing the findings of the research project. Findings Nondisclosure

Unethical Behavior to Avoid Violating participant confidentiality Changing data Creating false data Changing data presentation Changing data interpretations Injecting bias in interpretations Research must be designed so that a participant does not suffer physical harm, discomfort, pain, embarrassment, or loss of privacy. This slide lists the three guidelines researchers should follow to protect participants. When discussing benefits, the researcher should be careful not to overstate or understate the benefits. Informed consent means that the participant has given full consent to participation after receiving full disclosure of the procedures of the proposed study. Omitting sections of data Making recommendations beyond scope of data

What To Do If Coerced? Educate Explain on problems purpose Emphasize fact-finding role Occasionally, researchers may be asked by sponsors to participate in unethical behavior. What can the researcher do to remain ethical? There are four suggestions provided in the slide. The researcher can attempt to educate the sponsor to the purpose of the research, explain the researcher’s role as a fact-finder, explain how distorting the truth or breaking faith will lead to future problems, and if the others fail, terminate the relationship. Terminate Relationship

Principles of Effective Codes of Ethics Enforceable Regulate Protect Many organizations have codes of ethics. A code of ethics is an organization’s codified set of norms or standards of behavior that guide moral choices about research behavior. Effective codes are those that 1) are regulative, 2) protect the public interest and the interests of the profession served by the code, 3) are behavior-specific, and 4) are enforceable. Exhibit 2-5 provides additional sources for ethics resources. Specify Behavior

Language of Research Terms used in research Concepts Constructs Conceptual schemes Models Operational definitions Terms used in research Several terms are used by researchers to converse about applied and theoretical business problems. A concept is a bundle of meanings or characteristics associated with certain concrete, unambiguous events, objects, conditions, or situations. The importance of conceptualization is discussed in the following slide. A construct is a definition specifically invented to represent an abstract phenomena for a given research project. Exhibit 3-1, a depiction of job redesign constructs, is provided in Slide 2-13. A conceptual scheme is the interrelationship between concepts and constructs. An operational definition defines a variable in terms of specific measurement and testing criteria. An example of an operational definition is provided in Slide 2-14. A variable is used as a synonym for the construct being studied. Slides 2-15 through 2-20 expand on different types of variables. A proposition is a statement about observable phenomena that may be judged as true or false. (Slide 2-21) A hypothesis is a proposition formulated for empirical testing. (Slides 2-22 through 2-25) A theory is a set of systematically interrelated concepts, definitions, and propositions that are advanced to explain or predict phenomena. Slide 2-26 shows an example of a theory. A model is a representation of a system constructed to study some aspect of that system. Slide 2-27 shows an example of a model. Theory Variables Propositions/ Hypotheses

Clear conceptualization Language of Research Clear conceptualization of concepts Success of Research Shared understanding of concepts We must attempt to measure concepts in a clear manner that others can understand. If concepts are not clearly conceptualized and measured, we will receive confusing answers.

Job Redesign Constructs and Concepts Exhibit 3-1 Exhibit 3-1 illustrates some of the concepts and constructs relevant to job redesign. The concepts at the bottom of the exhibit (format accuracy, manuscript errors, and keyboarding speed) are the most concrete and easily measured. Keyboarding speed is one just concept in the group that defines a construct that the human resource analyst calls Presentation Quality. It is not directly observable like keyboarding speed. It is a term used to communicate (a label) the combination of meanings presented by the three concepts. Concepts at the next level are vocabulary, syntax, and spelling. As they are related, the analyst groups them into a construct she calls language skill. Language skills is placed at a higher level of abstraction in the exhibit because two of the concepts that comprise it, vocabulary and syntax, are more difficult to observe and measure. The construct of job interest is not yet measured nor are its components specified. Researchers often refer to such constructs as hypothetical constructs because they are inferred only from the data—they are presumed to exist but no measure tests whether such constructs actually exist. If research shows the concepts and constructs in this example to be interrelated, and if the connections can be supported, then the analyst has the beginning of a conceptual scheme. One exercise you can try is to have students attempt to identify the concepts/constructs in the hypothetical construct…job interest, and discuss which elements are truly measurable…and how.

Operational Definitions How can we define the variable “class level of students”? Freshman Sophomore Junior Senior < 30 credit hours 30-50 credit hours 60-89 credit hours > 90 credit hours Operational definitions are definitions stated in terms of specific criteria for testing or measurement. The specifications must be so clear that any competent person using them would classify the objects in the same way. If a study of college students required classifying students by class level, a definition of each category would be necessary. Students could be grouped by class level based on self-report, number of years in school, or number of credit hours completed. Credit hours is the most precise measure.

A Variable: Property Being Studied Event Act Variable Characteristic Trait In practice, the term variable is used as a synonym for the property being studied. In this context, a variable is a symbol of an event, act, characteristic, trait, or attribute that can be measured and to which we assign categorical values. The different types of variables are presented on the following slides. Attribute

Religious affiliation Types of Variables Dichotomous Male/Female Employed/ Unemployed Discrete Ethnic background Educational level Religious affiliation For the purposes of data entry and analysis, we assign numerical values to a variable based on that variable’s properties. Dichotomous variables have only two values that reflect the absence or presence of a property. Variables also take on values representing added categories such as demographic variables. All such variables are said to be discrete since only certain values are possible. Continuous variables take on values within a given range or, in some cases, an infinite set. Continuous Income Temperature Age

Independent and Dependent Variable Synonyms Independent Variable (IV) Predictor Presumed cause Stimulus Predicted from… Antecedent Manipulated Dependent Variable (DV) Criterion Presumed effect Response Predicted to…. Consequence Measured outcome Exhibit 3-2 Exhibit 3-2 presents the commonly used synonyms for independent and dependent variables. An independent variable is the variable manipulated by the researcher to cause an effect on the dependent variable. The dependent variable is the variable expected to be affected by the manipulation of an independent variable.

Relationships Among Variable Types

Relationships Among Variable Types

Relationships Among Variable Types

Moderating Variables (MV) The introduction of a four-day week (IV) will lead to higher productivity (DV), especially among younger workers (MV) The switch to commission from a salary compensation system (IV) will lead to increased sales (DV) per worker, especially more experienced workers (MV). The loss of mining jobs (IV) leads to acceptance of higher-risk behaviors to earn a family-supporting income (DV) – particularly among those with a limited education (MV). Moderating variables are variables that are believed to have a significant contributory or contingent effect on the originally stated IV-DV relationship. Whether a variable is treated as an independent or as a moderating variable depends on the hypothesis. Examples of moderating variables are shown in the slide.

Extraneous Variables (EV) With new customers (EV-control), a switch to commission from a salary compensation system (IV) will lead to increased sales productivity (DV) per worker, especially among younger workers (MV). Among residents with less than a high school education (EV-control), the loss of jobs (IV) leads to high-risk behaviors (DV), especially due to the proximity of the firing range (MV). Extraneous variables are variables that could conceivably affect a given relationship. Some can be treated as independent or moderating variables or assumed or excluded from the study. If an extraneous variable might confound the study, the extraneous variable may be introduced as a control variable to help interpret the relationship between variables. Examples are given in the slide.

Intervening Variables (IVV) The switch to a commission compensation system (IV) will lead to higher sales (DV) by increasing overall compensation (IVV). A promotion campaign (IV) will increase savings activity (DV), especially when free prizes are offered (MV), but chiefly among smaller savers (EV-control). The results come from enhancing the motivation to save (IVV). An intervening variable (IVV) is a factor that affects the observed phenomenon but cannot be measured or manipulated. It is a conceptual mechanism through which the IV and MV might affect the DV.

Propositions and Hypotheses Brand Manager Jones (case) has a higher-than-average achievement motivation (variable). Brand managers in Company Z (cases) have a higher-than-average achievement motivation (variable). Generalization A proposition is a statement about observable phenomena that may be judged as true or false. A hypothesis is a proposition formulated for empirical testing. A case is the entity or thing the hypothesis talks about. When the hypothesis is based on more than one case, it would be a generalization. Examples are provided in the slide.

Descriptive Hypothesis Formats In Detroit, our potato chip market share stands at 13.7%. American cities are experiencing budget difficulties. Research Question What is the market share for our potato chips in Detroit? Are American cities experiencing budget difficulties? A descriptive hypothesis is a statement about the existence, size, form, or distribution of a variable. Researchers often use a research question rather than a descriptive hypothesis. Examples are provided in the slide. Either format is acceptable, but the descriptive hypothesis has three advantages over the research question. Descriptive hypotheses encourage researchers to crystallize their thinking about the likely relationships. Descriptive hypotheses encourage researchers to think about the implications of a supported or rejected finding. Descriptive hypotheses are useful for testing statistical significance.

Relational Hypotheses Formats Correlational Young women (under 35) purchase fewer units of our product than women who are older than 35. The number of suits sold varies directly with the level of the business cycle. Causal An increase in family income leads to an increase in the percentage of income saved. Loyalty to a grocery store increases the probability of purchasing that store’s private brand products. A relational hypothesis is a statement about the relationship between two variables with respect to some case. Relational hypotheses may be correlational or explanatory (causal). A correlational hypothesis is a statement indicating that variables occur together in some specified manner without implying that one causes the other. A causal hypothesis is a statement that describes a relationship between two variables in which one variable leads to a specified effect on the other variable.

The Role of Hypotheses Guide the direction of the study Identify relevant facts Suggest most appropriate research design This slide presents the functions served by hypotheses. Provide framework for organizing resulting conclusions

Characteristics of Strong Hypotheses Adequate A Strong Hypothesis Testable The conditions for developing a strong hypothesis are more fully developed in Exhibit 3-4. Better than rivals

Theory within Research Exhibit 3-5 What is the difference between theories and hypotheses? Theories tend to be complex, abstract, and involve multiple variables. Hypotheses tend to be simple, limited-variable statements involving concrete instances. A theory is a set of systematically interrelated concepts, definitions, and propositions that are advanced to explain or predict phenomena. To the degree that our theories are sound and fit the situation, we are successful in our explanations and predictions. The product life cycle, shown in Exhibit 3-5, is an example of a theory.

The Role of Reasoning Exhibit 3-7: Business models are developed through the use of inductive and deductive reasoning. As illustrated in Exhibit 3-7, a business model may originate from empirical observations about market behavior based on researched facts and relationships among variables. Inductive reasoning allows the modeler to draw conclusions from the facts or evidence in planning the dynamics of the model. The modeler may also use existing theory, managerial experience or judgment, or facts.

A Model within Research Exhibit 3-6 A model is a representation of a system constructed to study some aspect of that system or the system as a whole. Models versus Theories a model’s role is to represent or describe A theory’s role is to explain. Models in business research may be descriptive, predictive, and normative. Descriptive models are used for complex systems because they allow for the visualization of numerous variables and relationships. Predictive models forecast future events and facilitate business planning. Normative models are used for control, because they indicate necessary actions. Exhibit 3-6, shown in the slide, is a distribution network model called a maximum flow model used in management science. In this example, a European manufacturer of automobiles needs an increased flow of shipping to its Los Angeles distribution center to meet demand. However the primary distribution channel is saturated and alternatives must be sought. Models allow researchers to specify hypotheses that characterize present or future conditions: the effect of advertising on consumer awareness or intention to purchase, brand switching behavior, an employee training program, or other aspects of business.

The Scientific Method Direct observation Clearly defined variables Clearly defined methods Empirically testable Elimination of alternatives Statistical justification Self-correcting process Good business research is based on sound reasoning because reasoning is essential for producing scientific results. This slide introduces the scientific method and its essential tenets. The scientific method guides our approach to problem-solving. An important term in the list is empirical. Empirical testing denotes observations and propositions based on sensory experiences and/or derived from such experience by methods of inductive logic, including mathematics and statistics. Researchers using this approach attempt to describe, explain, and make predictions by relying on information gained through observation. The scientific method is described as a puzzle-solving activity.

Researchers Encounter problems State problems Propose hypotheses Deduce outcomes Formulate rival hypotheses Devise and conduct empirical tests Draw conclusions The steps followed by business researchers to approach a problem are presented in the slide.

Why is curiosity important? This ad from Synovate reinforces the notion that researchers must be curious. Students can see the Synovate website at www.synovate.com.

Sound Reasoning Types of Discourse Exposition Argument Deduction Exposition consists of statements that describe without attempting to explain. Argument allows us to explain, interpret, defend, challenge, and explore meaning. There are two types of argument: deduction and induction. Deduction is a form of reasoning in which the conclusion must necessarily follow from the premises given. The next slide provides an example of a deductive argument. Induction is a form of reasoning that draws a conclusion from one or more particular facts or pieces of evidence. Slide 2-8 illustrates an inductive argument. Deduction Induction

This survey involves substantial inner-city household interviewing Deductive Reasoning Inner-city household interviewing is especially difficult and expensive This survey involves substantial inner-city household interviewing   This slide provides an example of a deductive argument. The interviewing in this survey will be especially difficult and expensive

Deductive Reasoning Apply deductive reasoning to this image. What will happen next?

Inductive Reasoning Why didn’t sales increase during our promotional event? Regional retailers did not have sufficient stock to fill customer requests during the promotional period A strike by employees prevented stock from arriving in time for promotion to be effective A hurricane closed retail outlets in the region for 10 days during the promotion This slide provides an example of an inductive argument.

Why Didn’t Sales Increase? Exhibit 3-8 Induction and deduction can be used together in research reasoning. Induction occurs when we observe a fact and ask, “Why is this?” In answer to this question, we advance a tentative explanation or hypothesis. The hypothesis is plausible if it explains the event or condition (fact) that prompted the question. Deduction is the process by which we test whether the hypothesis is capable of explaining the fact. Exhibit 3-8 illustrates this process.

Tracy’s Performance Exhibit 3-9

The Research Process Stage 1: Clarifying the Research question Stage 2: Proposing Research Stage 3: Designing the Research Stage 4: Data Collection & Preparation Stage 5: Data Analysis & Interpretation Stage 6: Reporting the Results

Stage 1: Clarifying the Research Question Exhibit 4-1 illustrates the research process. This slide focuses on the first stage of the process, clarifying the research question. A useful way to approach the research process is to state the basic dilemma that prompts the research and then try to develop other questions by progressively breaking down the original question into more specific ones. This process can be thought of as the management-research question hierarchy. The process begins at the most general level with the management dilemma. This is usually a symptom of an actual problem, such as rising costs, declining sales, or a large number of defects. This portion of the research process is the focus of chapter 5. Key terms: A management dilemma is an opportunity of problem that the manager has discovered because of one or more symptoms. A management question is a restatement of the manager’s dilemma in question form. A research question is the hypothesis that best states the objective of the research; the question that focuses the researcher’s attention. An investigative question is the question the researcher must answer to satisfactorily answer the research question. A measurement question is the question asked of the participant or the observations that must be recorded. Management-research question hierarchy process begins by identifying the management dilemma

Stage 1: Clarifying the Research Question Step 1: Discover the Management Dilemma This portion of Exhibit 4-2 explores the management dilemma for the MindWriter CompleteCare vignette A management dilemma is an opportunity or problem that the manager has discovered because of one or more symptoms.

Stage 1: Clarifying the Research Question Step 2: Define the Management Question This portion of Exhibit 4-2 explores the management question for the MindWriter CompleteCare vignette A management question is a restatement of the manager’s dilemma in question form.

Stage 1: Clarifying the Research Question Step 3: Define the Research Question This portion of Exhibit 4-2 explores the research question for the MindWriter CompleteCare vignette A research question is the hypothesis that best states the objective of the research; the question that focuses the researcher’s attention.

Evaluating the Value of Research Option Analysis Decision Theory Prior or Interim Evaluation Managers are increasingly asked to prove that research meets ROI objectives. Conceptually, the value of research is not difficult to determine. It may be judged in terms of the difference between the result of decisions made with the information and the result that would be made without it. This application cannot be measured, though. Option analysis: Managers conduct formal analysis of each alternative research project judged in terms of estimated costs and associated benefits and with managerial judgment playing a major role. Decision theory: The focus is on trying to assess the outcomes of each action. The manager chooses the action that affords the best outcome – the action criteria that meets or exceeds whatever criteria are established. Each criterion is a combination of a decision rule and a decision variable. The decision rule is a criterion for judging the attractiveness of two or more alternatives when using a decision variable. The decision variable is a quantifiable characteristic, attribute, or outcome on which a choice decision will be made. The evaluation of alternatives requires that each alternative is explicitly stated, a decision variable is defined by an outcome that may be measured, and a decision rule is determined by which outcomes may be compared. Prior or Interim Evaluation: In this case, managers decide to control the research expenditure risk by doing a study in stages. Costs are then reviewed at each stage. Ex Post Facto Evaluation: This form occurs after the research is conducted but can be useful in guiding future decisions. Ex Post Facto Evaluation

Stage 2: Proposing Research From Appendix A. Once the research is defined, the research must be proposed in order to allocate resources to the project. There are three types of budgets in organizations where research is purchased and cost containment is crucial. Rule-of-thumb budgeting involves taking a fixed percentage of some criterion. For example, a percentage of the prior year’s sales revenues may be the basis for determining the business research budget for a manufacturer. Departmental (functional area) budgeting allocates a portion of total expenditures in the unit to research activities. This allows units like human resources and marketing to have the authority to approve their own projects Task budgeting selects specific research projects to support on an ad hoc basis. This is the least pro-active form but permits definitive cost-benefit analysis. Budget Types Rule-of-thumb Departmental Task

The Research Proposal Written proposals establish Purpose Methods Extent Legally-binding contract Timing Written proposals establish Obligations Delivery From Appendix A A written proposal is often required and is desirable for establishing agreement on a number of issues. These issues are named in the slide. A research proposal may also be oral. This is more likely when a manager directs his or her own research. Students have an example of an external proposal on their text CD. Budgets

Stage 3: Designing the Research Stage 3 encompasses the design of the research project. There are three components to this stage: research design, sampling design, and pilot testing. Research design is the blueprint for fulfilling objectives and providing the insight to answer the management dilemma. There are many methods, techniques, procedures, and protocols possible. Chapter 6 identifies various research designs and Chapters 7-14 discuss specific methodologies. Another step in planning the research project is to identify the target population and determine whether a sample or census is desired. A census is a count of all elements in a population. A sample is a group of cases, participants, events, or records that constitute a portion of the target population. The researcher must determine whether to choose a probability or nonprobability sample. Types of samples, sample frames, how samples are drawn, and the determination of sample size are discussed in Chapters 15. A pilot test is conducted to test weaknesses in the research methodology and the data collection instrument and to provide proxy data for selection of a probability sample. Chapter 14 focuses on instrument development and pilot testing is discussed.

Stage 3: Designing the Research Project Sampling Design Stage 3 encompasses the design of the research project. There are three components to this stage: research design, sampling design, and pilot testing. Research design is the blueprint for fulfilling objectives and providing the insight to answer the management dilemma. There are many methods, techniques, procedures, and protocols possible. Chapter 6 identifies various research designs and Chapters 7-14 discuss specific methodologies. Another step in planning the research project is to identify the target population and determine whether a sample or census is desired. A census is a count of all elements in a population. A sample is a group of cases, participants, events, or records that constitute a portion of the target population. The researcher must determine whether to choose a probability or nonprobability sample. Types of samples, sample frames, how samples are drawn, and the determination of sample size are discussed in Chapters 15. A pilot test is conducted to test weaknesses in the research methodology and the data collection instrument and to provide proxy data for selection of a probability sample. Chapter 14 focuses on instrument development and pilot testing is discussed. Pilot Testing

Stage 4: Data Collection

Data Characteristics Abstractness Verifiability Elusiveness Closeness Stage 4 deals with data collection and preparation. Data may be characterized by their abstractness, verifiability, elusiveness, and closeness to the phenomenon. As abstractions, data are more metaphorical than real. For instance, the growth in GDP cannot be readily observed. Second, data are processed by our senses. When sensory experiences consistently produce the same result, our data are said to be trustworthy. Capturing data is elusive. Secondary data are originally collected to address a problem other than the one which require the manager’s attention at the moment. Primary data are data the research collects to address the specific problem at hand. Closeness

Collecting Sensitive Data Demands Safeguards Scotts used a healthcare management company to collect sensitive wellness data during annual health assessments to preserve participant confidentiality. Refer to the Snapshot in the teacher’s instruction manual: Scotts is Cultivating Lower Health Care Costs in the Instructor’s Manual.

Data Types Primary Secondary Data is characterized as of two types. Secondary data are originally collected to address a problem other than the one which require the manager’s attention at the moment. Primary data are data the research collects to address the specific problem at hand. Ask which students are seeing…immediate reaction is secondary data…but caution them. If a researcher is evaluating how individuals are using library assets in an observation study, primary data could be what they see in this picture.

Stage 5: Data Analysis &Interpretation

Steps in Data Analysis and Interpretation Reduce data to manageable size Develop summaries Look for patterns Data analysis usually involves these four actions. Researchers then interpret their findings in light of the research questions and hypotheses. The raw data alone cannot provide the insights necessary to improve decision-making. Motorola and Rock the Vote teamed up during the 2004 presidential election to use cell phone surveys to track young voters’ changing perceptions during the campaign. The PicProfile on this research is on p. 88.   Apply statistical techniques

Stage 6: Reporting the Results

Parts of the Research Report Executive Summary Research Overview Research Report In reporting the results, the researcher should strive to provide insightful information adapted to the client’s needs and to choose words carefully when crafting interpretations, conclusions, and recommendations. The research report should include an executive summary, research overview, implementation strategies, and a technical appendix. The executive summary consists of a synopsis of the problem, findings, and recommendations. The overview of research explains the background, exploratory findings from secondary data, the research design and procedures, and the conclusions. The implementation strategies section expands on recommendations. A technical appendix contains all the materials necessary to replicate the project. Technical Appendix Implementation Strategies

The Research Report Overview Problem’s background Summary of exploratory findings Research design and procedures This slide presents the components of the research overview section of a research report. Conclusions

Research Process Problems to Avoid Researchers must remain objective. The slide presents common problems in the research process. Unresearchable questions: Not all management questions are researchable and not all research questions are answerable. An ill-defined problem is one that addresses complex issues and cannot be expressed easily or completely. Politically-Motivated Research: Sometimes a research study is intended to win approval for a pet idea or to protect a decision maker. In these cases, it may be more difficult to get support for the most appropriate research design. Ill-defined management problem Unresearchable questions Politically-motivated research

Research Process Problems to Avoid Researchers must remain objective. The slide presents common problems in the research process. The favored-technique syndrome occurs when researchers are method-bound. They recast management questions so that it is amenable to their favorite method. Company database strip-mining means that managers may feel that they do not want to collect more data until they have thoroughly evaluated all existing data. While data mining can be a good starting point, it will rarely address all questions related to a specific management dilemma. Not all management questions are researchable and not all research questions are answerable. An ill-defined problem is one that addresses complex issues and cannot be expressed easily or completely. Sometimes a research study is intended to win approval for a pet idea or to protect a decision maker. In these cases, it may be more difficult to get support for the most appropriate research design. Company Database Strip-mining Favored Techniques Syndrome