Chapter 4: Explicit Reports An Introduction to Scientific Research Methods in Geography As Reviewed by: Michelle Guzdek GEOG 4020 Prof. Sutton 2/1/2010

Learning Objectives & Discussion Questions What are general properties and specific types of explicit reports? What are options for formatting explicit-report items? What are options for administering explicit reports, and what are some consequences of the different options? What are some ways to design and generate explicit-report instruments? What are characteristics fo the U.S. census and the data it produces? What are basic limitations of explicit reports as a type of research data?

Explicit Reports Explicit reports are one of the most flexible and popular types of data collection in human geography. Includes surveys, interviews, and tests. Can request different types of beliefs: Behaviors Knowledge Opinions Attitudes Expectations Intentions Experiences Demographic Characteristics.

Explicit Reports (cont.) Request responses that cannot readily be judged as right or wrong Responses are personal opinions or preferences Can be characterized as common or unusual Can be related to other variables such as demographics

Major Types of Explicit Report Instruments Surveys, questionnaires Interviews Sociometric ratings Activity diaries, logs Contingent valuation Focus groups Protocol analysis Tests

Survey Require respondents to answer questions about their opinions, attitudes and preferences

Interview Collect the same types of information as surveys but are administered and responded to orally

Sociometric Ratings Subtype of survey Opinions or beliefs expressed by members of small groups, such as families or carpool groups, about each of the other members of the group Particularly valuable for studying small-group structure and dynamics

Activity Diary or Log Subtype of survey Requires respondents to record what they do on a regular basis Transportation survey Shopping survey

Contingent Valuation Subtype of survey Requires people to rate or rank how much they value something Commonly used in studies of how people value particular landscapes or environmental actions Ratings of values are expressed in dollars or units such as hours or miles

Focus Groups Unstructured interviews carried out with a small group of respondents Discuss a particular topic and led by a facilitator or moderator

Protocol Analysis Open-ended interview in which people “think aloud” about the contents of their conscious mind while reasoning about some problem or issue

Tests Require participants to respond to questions that can be assessed as right or wrong Typically scored for accuracy, including number or size of errors, in order to generate the data

Format of Explicit Reports All explicit reports ask people to respond to something A specific survey, interview or test is called an instrument The specific questions or statements that make it up are called items Closed-ended items – finite number of answers Open-ended items – do not provide specific response options for respondents

Major Types of Closed- Ended Items Rating scales Forced-choice alternatives Ranking of alternatives Adjective or activity checklist Paired or triadic comparisons Sorting task

Rating Scales Respondents provide a number or mark a line to indicate the amount or extent of something, including degree of belief they have in something Generic Semantic differential Likert scales Paired comparison ratings

Which Type to Use

Rating Scale Example Image Source:

Forced-Choice Alternatives Examples

Administration of Explicit Reports Considerations for determining best way to administer explicit reports Cost Number and nature of items Response rate Potential for follow-up Nature of respondents Possible interviewer artifacts

Designing and Generating Explicit Instruments Avoid confusing, biased, and ambiguous wording by using clear and unambiguous language, understood consistently by all respondents Items need to be unidimensional – they need to only ask one thing Avoid biased and emotionally charged wording Avoid unnecessary questions Don’t make survey too long

U.S. Census Image Source:

An Important Secondary Source of Explicit Report Data A census is a count of the number of people in a country and an assessment of their characteristics Carried out by national governments Provide an important source of explicit-report data for geographers Answers to census questions vary both spatially and temporally

U.S. Census Questions

Hierarchy of standard geographic units for dissemination 2006 Census of Canada

Obtaining Census Data - ESRI

Limitations of Explicit Reports To believe that all explicit report data are completely true and accurate would be naïve Limits of memory are clearly important People forget! Language limitations

References AlterNetRides (2010). Ride Share Program where you can log your daily commute Statistics Canada (2010). Hierarchy of standard geographic units for dissemination, 2006 Census eng.jsp;jsessionid=D747B9C5B CF206316F497AB6?GEO_LEVEL=null&ABBRV=null&REFCODE=10&LA NG=E&FILENAME=HierarchyFigure&TYPE=null eng.jsp;jsessionid=D747B9C5B CF206316F497AB6?GEO_LEVEL=null&ABBRV=null&REFCODE=10&LA NG=E&FILENAME=HierarchyFigure&TYPE=null Survey Monkey (2010). U.S. Census Bureau U.S. Census Bureau (2010). Census 2000 Geographic Definitions. Waddington, H. (2000). Types of survey questions. In B. Hoffman (Ed.), Encyclopedia of Educational Technology. Retrieved February 8, 2010, from