Cyanotoxins & Human Health Alison Reeve Jiaxin Yu Marshall Ambros Rachel Beauregard Steve Hoffmann

Problem Statement Cyanobacteria are capable of producing toxins and have been linked to human health concerns

Objectives Study the behavior of cyanotoxins in the environment and the human body Thoroughly investigate cyanotoxin's effects on human health in the Lake Champlain Basin.  Determine precautionary measures to prevent the toxins from further impacting human life and the environment. Cyanobacteria, commonly known as blue-green algae, have recently been linked to several types of neurodegenerative diseases, including amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), Parkinson's Disease, and Alzheimer’s Disease, which occur through exposure to toxins produced by cyanobacteria.

Cyanobacteria History They’ve been around for 2 billion years Research on cyanobacteria toxicity began 19th century Incidence of disease in 20th century caused by: Population pressure Global warming Eutrophication of surface waters Increased monitoring/awareness Unknown factors? Charmichael 2001

Cyanotoxin Receptors Humans Livestock Ducks Zooplankton (some indication) Fish? Shellfish? DeMott 1991, EPA 2005

Exposure Eating contaminated food Drinking contaminated water Swimming or dermal exposure Inhalation ALS Gastroenteritis, liver and kidney damage, death Skin rashes Irritation of eyes, nose, throat, skin, and respiratory tract

Cyanobacteria Prokaryotic Photosynthesizing Important primary producer in aquatic ecosystems Nuisance “blooms” in eutrophic environments Some species produce toxins

Eutrophication Phosphorus loading Algae Blooms Agricultural runoff Stormwater runoff Algae Blooms http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/bb/DairyCattle.jpg http://www.belaireks.org/images/Planning%20_%20Zoning/Stormwater.jpg

Algae Blooms Other Contributing Factors Effects on Ecosystem Nitrogen concentrations Water temperature Light Morphology of the impoundment Effects on Ecosystem Anoxia Toxic Blooms

Toxic Cyanobacteria 2,000 species: ~ 40 known to produce toxins Anabaena spp. Microcystis spp. Planktothrix spp. Nostoc spp. Nodularia spumigena http://www.shigen.nig.ac.jp/algae/images/strainsimage/nies-0075.jpg www.igb-berlin.de/.../phycology/algae2.jpg www.icb.ufmg.br/big/lgar/img_t3.jpg http://www.soes.soton.ac.uk/staff/tt/nf/pics/nodusp6.jpg Microcystis aeruginosa Planktothrix rubescens Nodularia spumigena

Cyanotoxins Neurotoxins Anatoxin-a Anatoxin-as Saxitoxin β-Methylamino-L-alanine (BMAA) Hepatotoxins Microsystin-LR Nodularin-R Cytotoxins Cylindrospermopsin Gastrointestinal and dermatotoxins Aplysiatoxin Lyngbyatoxin a Anatoxin-as Anatoxin-a BMAA Microcystin LN Nodularin R Cylindrospermopsin Aplysiatoxin

Neurotoxins Anatoxin-a mimics acetylcholine Anatoxin-as is structurally different from Anatoxin–a and is highly toxic Saxitoxin is usually associated with red tides in marine ecosystems Responsible for paralytic shelfish poisoning Been detected in some freshwater species Anatoxin-a Acetylcholine

Hepatotoxins Cyclic peptides Cause liver damage Long term exposure can lead to liver cancer

Past Cases First known linked case found in Guam Caruaru, Brazil, Summer 1996 Dialysis center used water contaminated with microcystins 23 patients died in first 2 weeks, 37 more within 5 weeks

Funari E, Testai E. Toxigenic cyanobacteria from marine, brackish and freshwaters. Chart. Critical Reviews in Toxicology, Feb2008; 38(2):98 Available from: Academic Search Premier, Ipswich, MA. Accessed March 20, 2010.

Funari E, Testai E. Toxigenic cyanobacteria from marine, brackish and freshwaters. Chart. Critical Reviews in Toxicology, Feb2008; 38(2): 101 Available from: Academic Search Premier, Ipswich, MA. Accessed March 20, 2010.

BMAA neurotoxin Caused by over 30 species of cyanobacteria: Ex. Microcystis, Anabaena, Nostoc, Planktothrix Can cause motor neuron disease or death Accumulates in brain tissue Found in Guam and linked to ALS

Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis (ALS) Neurodegenerative disease About 2 per 100,000 people in US Can be caused by the neurotoxin BMAA Symptoms Muscle weakness (including speech muscles) Twitching and cramping of muscles Trouble with speech Shortness of breath, trouble swallowing Death by suffocation

Parkinson’s Disease (PD) Neurodegenerative Disease Symptoms Rigidity of muscles, slowing of movement Muscle spasms or tremors Loss of smell, blinking, smiling Speech changes (soft, monotone, repetition) Dementia in later stages

Alzheimer’s 7th leading cause of death Most common form of dementia Destroys brain cells leading to memory loss, confusion, changes in personality, mood, behavior, problems with language

Primary Liver Cancer (PLC) Most common form of liver cancer About 90% of liver cancer patients have this form Low 5-year survival rate 1.6 million people are diagnosed every year

Water Treatment Techniques Must use several methods in conjunction to eliminate both cells and toxins Coagulation/flocculation/sedimentation are good first steps, followed by: filtration with membrane, sand or activated charcoal Final treatment with UV light or ozone Burlington water intake is located in deep water, forty feet below the surface. Cyanotoxins and cells accumulate in shallows and near water surface.

Still Unknown Why certain species of cyanobacteria produce toxins only sometimes If chronic diseases are actually caused by cyanotoxins What causes algal blooms What factors besides shallow, stagnant water and phosphorus loading How to effectively remove cyanotoxins from water

Exposure in Lake Champlain Algal blooms in St. Albans Bay and Mississquoi Bay – not all toxic Drinking water- only during major blooms Ingestion or dermal contact Swimming- dermal contact Can lead to acute or chronic diseases, none reported thus far Dog deaths from swimming Only problem in summer

Algae via Remote Sensing Can detect different types of blooms using aerial imagery Each bloom has a different color Color change from Southern to Northern lake due to blooms in the summer Apparent on Google Maps

Potential Cyanotoxin Producing Species in Lake Champlain   2003 Frequency of Occurrence - Percent of Samples Taxon Main Lake South Lake Missisquoi Bay St Albans and other Northeastern Bays Anabaena flos-aquae 83 29 57 53 Anabaena spp. 51 50 43 58 Microcystis aeruginosa 47 94 56 Coelosphaerium spp. 34 4 44 Gloeotrichia spp. 1 5 9 Aphanizomenon flos-aquae 73 22 49 Samples Analyzed 102 14 175 45

Lake Champlain’s Algae Problem Not sure what causes toxicity Algae blooms are caused by: P/Nutrient/N cycles thrown off Lack of/not enough BMP’s in place Missisquoi Bridge Turtle Habitat Urban/Residential runoff Transportation

Wetlands Many wetlands have reached their holding capacities for nutrients LCBP wetland preservation Nutrients released when wetlands are destroyed Could construct more in key areas, but it would only be a temporary fix

Recommendations

The Three Aspects Prevention Increase public and government awareness Continuation of research and monitoring

Prevention To prevent cyanobacterial blooms To prevent human exposure to cyanotoxins

Cyanobacterial Bloom Prevention Prioritization Riparian Buffers Constructed Wetlands

Human Exposure Prevention Water treatment methods and technology Coagulation/Flocculation/filtration + UV light treatment Provisional guidelines (World Health Organization)

Public Awareness Get Connected Be Informed Demand Actions Clean Water Action Be Informed Demand Actions

Monitoring Areas with repetitive cyanobacterial blooms Areas with cyanotoxin exposure reports

Research The behaviors and mechanisms of the cyanobacteria and toxins in both water and the human body. To develop effective water treatment 36

Questions?

Resources: DeMott, W.R. et al. (1991) Effects of Toxic Cyanobacteria and Purified Toxins on the Survival and Feeding of a Copepod and Three Species of Daphnia. Carmichael Limnology and Oceanography, 36, 7, 1346-1357. “International Symposium on Cyanobacterial Harmful Algal Blooms”. 2005 U.S. Environmental Protection Agency <http://www.epa.gov/cyano_habs_symposium/> Carmichael, WW. (2001) Health Effects of Toxin-Producing Cyanobacteria: “The CyanoHABs”. Human and Ecological Risk Assessment, 7, 5, 1393-1407. Parkinsons.org Alsa.org Alz.org LCBP.org