Chapter 4 - The Roman Period and the Middle Ages A History of Psychology: Ideas and Context (4th edition) D. Brett King, Wayne Viney, and William Douglas Woody This multimedia product and its contents are protected under copyright law. The following are prohibited by law: any public performance or display, including transmission of any image over a network; preparation of any derivative work, including the extraction, in whole or in part, of any images; any rental, lease, or lending of the program

Roman Medicine The Roman period was approximately the 7th century B.C. to 476 C.E. Galen was the most prominent Roman physician. Galen accepted the Greek theory of four bodily humors He argued that four qualities (cold, warm, dry, and moist) were involved in the balance required for health. Mental disorders were also caused by imbalance in the four humors. He advocated an early form of psychotherapy to induce balance. Galen was a vitalist. He accepted three types of pneuma (natural spirit, vital spirit, and animal spirit). The Christian church assimilated Galen’s ideasas part of church dogma. The church did not assimilate his emphasis on research. The Roman period extends from approximately the 7th century B.C. to 476 A.D. when the last Roman emperor was deposed. Many Romans lived in wealth and in a culturally and religiously diverse society, but the intellectual climate did not encourage inquiry in the style of the Greeks. Early Roman medicine was highly infused with supernatural explanations. Galen was the most prominent Roman physician. Galen accepted the Greek theory of four bodily humors (black bile, yellow bile, blood, and phlegm), and he argued that four qualities (cold, warm, dry, and moist) were relevant in sickness and in maintaining the balance required for health. Galen argued that mental disorders, like physical disorders, were caused by imbalance in the four humors, and he suggested that an individual with a mental disorder should seek counsel, an early form of psychotherapy. Galen was a vitalist who accepted pneuma involving three types of vital principles including the natural spirit, the vital spirit, and the animal spirit. The Christian church assimilated Galen’s ideas, and his successes and his errors became dogma as part of church doctrine. The church did not assimilate his emphasis on research.

Roman Philosophy Roman Philosophy focused on the good life. Stoicism advocated the calm acceptance of one’s fate and the removal of oneself from appetitive pursuits. Stoicism was founded by Zeno of Cyprus. Stoicism was influenced by Epictetus. Roman Philosophy was largely derivative and focused on the quest to lead a good life. Stoicism, founded by Zeno of Cyprus, advocated the calm acceptance of one’s fate and the removal of oneself from passionate and appetitive pursuits. Epictetus suggested that humans take responsibility for what they can control and calmly accept what they cannot control.

Roman Philosophy Epicureanism emphasized the powers of pleasure and pain over human decisions and advocated a simple life in the middle ground. Lucretius approached a number of psychological topics. He argued for the unity of mind and body. He advocated an atomistic materialism, but he allowed room for human free will. Lucretius wrote extensively on sensation, morals, and the evolution of social groups, religion, and language. Epicureanism emphasized the powers of pleasure and pain over human decisions and advocated a simple life in the middle ground. Lucretius was an Epicurean who approached a number of psychological topics. Lucretius argued for the unity of mind and body. He advocated an atomistic materialism, but he allowed room for human free will. Lucretius wrote extensively on sensation, morals, and the evolution of social groups, religion, and language.

Roman Philosophy Neoplatonism reflected Greek, Jewish, and Christian traditions. It was explicitly theological version of Platonic ideas. Plotinus accepted a hierarchy of being. God existing as pure being and the highest level of reality and then descending in being from God to intellectual principle followed by the soul. Plotinus also addressed questions of sensation and happiness through self-knowledge. Hypatia of Alexandria was the leader of the neo-Platonic school and an expert in geometry and astronomy. She advocated music therapy for mental disorders. Music therapy may have led to her murder by Christian monks. Neoplatonism, believed to be founded by Plotinus, demonstrated an affinity among Greek, Jewish, and Christian traditions. Neoplatonism provides an explicitly theological version of Platonic ideas. Plotinus accepted a hierarchy of being, with God existing as pure being and the highest level of reality and then descending in being from God to intellectual principle followed by the soul. Plotinus also addressed questions of sensation and happiness through self-knowledge. Hypatia of Alexandria was the leader of the neo-Platonic school in Alexandria and an expert in geometry and astronomy. Hypatia advocated music therapy for mental disorders; this may have led to her murder by Christian monks attempting to eliminate pagan rituals from the Roman Empire.

Roman Philosophy Roman skepticism was founded by Pyrrho. Skepticism denied the possibility of knowledge. It advocated an untroubled existence and avoiding the possibility of disappointment by suspending belief in all theories. Roman skepticism, founded by Pyrrho and led in the late second and early third centuries by Sextus Empiricus, denied the possibility of knowledge and advocated an untroubled existence through a simplified life in which one avoids the possibility of disappointment and false hope by suspending belief in all theories.

The Fall of Rome and the Emergence of Christianity The fall of Rome was a complex and gradual decline influenced by several factors. The early Christian Faith was a diverse and complicated system including many factions. Theological leaders did not always agree. The early Christian faith was shaped by the conflict with the Roman government and the final victory when the Roman emperor converted to Christianity and the church ascended to power. The fall of Rome was a complex and gradual decline influenced by several factors and including the tensions between the Roman government and the Christian church. The early Christian Faith was a diverse and complicated system including such factions as Gnosticism, Marcionism, and Montanism. Theological leaders did not always agree on matters of doctrine; for example, Jesus accepted and taught women, yet later church leaders (e.g., Tertullian) explicitly blamed women for the fall in the Garden of Eden. The early Christian faith was extensively shaped by the conflict with the Roman government and the final victory when the Roman emperor converted to Christianity and the church ascended to power.

The Medieval Period The medieval period extends from approximately 400 C.E. through about 1400 C.E. Many practical inventions and new forms of architecture reached new heights. Medical and psychological inquiry largely stagnated. Knowledge was based almost exclusively in theological authority. Tertullian helped to set the stage for the medieval period by elevating revelation over reason. The medieval period extends from approximately 400 C.E. through about 1400 C.E., and the medieval period was a time of both advance and stagnation. Many practical inventions (e.g., the clock, the navigational compass, dyes) were created in the medieval period, and architecture reached new heights. Medical and psychological inquiry largely stagnated. Knowledge was based almost exclusively in theological authority, and appeals to divine intervention (e.g., trial by the ordeal) were popular epistemological methods. Tertullian set the stage for the medieval period by elevating revelation over reason.

Aurelius Augustine Augustine combined Greek and Christian thought with other theological and philosophical systems of his day. He described grief, habit breaking, and his perceptions of infant motivation. Some of his notions regarding memory are surprisingly current. Augustine’s explorations of psychological topics reflect his Christian theology. He acted against the values of curiosity, doubt, and openness that would eventually lead to development of scientific inquiry. Aurelius Augustine combined Greek and Christian thought with other theological and philosophical systems of his day, and he applied these intellectual traditions to many psychological questions. In great detail, Augustine described grief, habit breaking, and his perceptions of infant motivation as selfish, brutish, and asocial. Some of Augustine’s notions regarding memory are surprisingly current (e.g., his distinction between recognition and recall). Augustine’s explorations of psychological topics, for example, dreams, reflect his Christian theology, and he acted against the values of curiosity, doubt, and openness that would eventually lead to development of scientific inquiry. Boethius struggled to combine reason, authority, and revelation in his search for truth before waiting for his execution and describing true happiness in terms of oneness with God.

Boethius Boethius struggled to combine reason, authority, and revelation in his search for truth. Boethius described true happiness in terms of oneness with God.

Islam in the Middle Ages Islam swept through Arab lands and into Europe in the 7th century. Rhazes challenged demonology, raised doubts about traditional authorities, and advocated diversions for melancholia. Avicenna wrote extensively on medical topics. He struggled to reconcile faith and reason. He accepted Galen’s description of four humors and believed that balance was essential. He argued for a tripartite soul including the vegetative soul, the animal soul, and the human soul. The seventh century witnessed the beginnings of Islam, which swept through Arab peoples and into Europe via religious conversions and military victories. Rhazes challenged demonology, raised doubts about traditional authorities (e.g., Galen), and advocated games and music as diversions for melancholia. Avicenna, sometimes called “the Galen of Islam,” wrote extensively on medical topics, and struggled to reconcile faith and reason. Avicenna accepted Galen’s description of four humors and believed that balance among the humors was essential for physical and psychological health. He argued for a tripartite soul including the vegetative soul, the animal soul, and the human soul.

Islam in the Middle Ages Alhazen studied on optical phenomena. Al-Ghazali believed that God, not nature or cause, explains everything in experience. Al-Ghazali argued against empiricism and rationalism as epistemological methods. Averroës wrote extensive commentaries on the works of Aristotle. His commentaries became available throughout Europe. Alhazen focused his work on optical phenomena and demonstrated that light entered the eye from external objects. Al-Ghazali believed that God, not nature or cause, explains everything in experience. Therefore, he argued against empiricism and rationalism as epistemological methods. Averroës wrote extensive commentaries on the works of Aristotle; his commentaries were translated into Latin and became available throughout Europe.

Judaism in the middle ages The history of Judaism in the middle ages is largely a history of persecution. Maimonides struggled to reconcile faith and reason. His Guide for the Perplexed argued for the use of reason in inquiry. The history of Judaism in the middle ages is largely a history of persecution from other religions and of reliance on supernatural explanations in the world. Maimonides struggled to reconcile faith and reason; his Guide for the Perplexed argued for the use of reason in inquiry.

The rise of European universities Peter Abelard argued that faith, reason, and doubt were all acceptable ways to truth. Héloise wrote extensively on the nature of love. Roger Bacon addressed a number of psychological topics in his classic, Opum Majus. The rise of European universities occurred slowly and often around famous teachers who attracted students to a given location. Peter Abelard was a brilliant and brave theologian who argued that faith, reason, and doubt were all acceptable avenues to truth and that truth could be accessible to non-Christian thinkers. Héloise, known more commonly for her relationship with Abelard, was a creative philosopher in her own right, writing extensively on the nature of love. Roger Bacon is best known for his Opum Majus, a book that addressed a number of different topics, including epistemological questions that explored the nature of human ignorance.

The rise of European universities Thomas Aquinas was deeply committed to reconciling faith and reason He extensively studied the known works of Aristotle. His views reflect Aristotle’s conceptions of the mind-body problem, sensation, and emotion. Aquinas was instrumental in bringing Aristotle’s work into the church, where it became unchallengeable church doctrine. Aquinas started with sensory perceptions and used reason to interpret these perceptions. He maintained that the church had nothing to fear from empiricism or rationalism. Thomas Aquinas was deeply committed to reconciling faith and reason, and he focused particularly on the known works of Aristotle. The views of Thomas Aquinas reflect Aristotle’s hylomorphism (see Chapter 3) in his conception of the mind-body problem, sensation, and emotion. He was instrumental in bringing Aristotle’s work into the church, where Aristotle became unchallengeable church doctrine. Aquinas started with sensory perceptions and used reason to interpret these perceptions. He maintained that the church had nothing to fear from empiricism or rationalism.

The rise of European universities William of Ockham continued the empirical tradition. He argued for the principle of parsimony, sometimes called “Ockham’s Razor.” William of Ockham continued the empirical tradition and argued for the principle of parsimony, sometimes called “Ockham’s Razor,” which states that explanations containing fewer assumptions are to be preferred to those containing more assumptions.