© 2010 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Children Cognitive Development in Middle and Late Childhood 12

© 2010 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Concrete Operational Thought Concrete operational stage; ages 7-11 –Reversible mental actions applied to real, concrete objects –Focus on several characteristics at once –Seriation: ability to order stimuli along a quantitative dimension –Transitivity: the ability to logically combine relations to understand certain conclusions What is Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development in Childhood?

© 2010 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Classification: An Important Ability in Concrete Operational Thought A family tree of 4 generations; a preoperational child has trouble classifying the members

© 2010 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Evaluating Piaget’s Theory His conclusions have been challenged: –Cognitive abilities can emerge earlier/later –Stages not unitary structures of thought –Some can be trained to reason at higher stage –Culture and education exert stronger influence Neo-Piagetians: he got some things right What is Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development in Childhood?

© 2010 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Applications to Education Teach children: –Take constructivist approach –Facilitate rather than direct learning –Consider child’s knowledge and level of thinking –Use ongoing assessment –Promote student’s intellectual health –Turn classroom into setting of exploration and discovery What is Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development in Childhood?

© 2010 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Applications to Education Applying Vygotsky’s ideas –Encourage child to internalize and regulate self-talk –Provide opportunities to learn in real-world settings –Kamehameha Elementary Education Program (KEEP) Small group activities, ZPD emphasis, question-and-answer format Outcomes are impressive What is Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development in Childhood?

© 2010 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Memory Dramatic improvement in middle/late childhood Knowledge and expertise –Expert: extensive knowledge in specific area –Strategies (aka: control processes) Deliberate mental actions to learn and retain information What is Nature of Children’s Information Processing?

© 2010 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Memory Strategies –Mental imagery used by young children –Elaboration used by older children –Fuzzy trace theory: Two types of memory representations: –Verbatim memory trace: precise details –Gist: central idea of information What is Nature of Children’s Information Processing?

© 2010 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Thinking Critical thinking –Thinking reflectively and productively –Evaluate evidence, develop deep understanding –Successful grades is not indicator of critical thinker Creative thinking –Think in novel and unusual ways –Produce unique solutions –Intelligence and creativity not the same What is Nature of Children’s Information Processing?

© 2010 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Thinking Creative thinking and intelligence –Convergent thinking – intelligence reflected on conventional tests; produce one correct answer –Divergent thinking – creativity; produce many answers for one question Research: –No Child Left Behind harms creative thinking; teaching to content of standardized tests What is Nature of Children’s Information Processing?

© 2010 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Caring for Children Strategies to increase creative thinking –Encourage brainstorming –Provide stimulating environments –Don’t overcontrol, build child’s confidence –Encourage internal motivation –Guide child to be persistent, delay gratification –Encourage taking intellectual risks –Introduce children to creative people What is Nature of Children’s Information Processing?

© 2010 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Thinking Scientific thinking –Reasoning to identify causal relations Need understanding of how things occur Analyze before and after the effect –Reasoning of children differs from scientific Scientists design experiments, hypotheses Scientists separate evidence and theory Child has many concepts incompatible with science and reality; not routinely taught What is Nature of Children’s Information Processing?

© 2010 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Metacognition Cognition about cognition –Most focus on metamemory Children ages 5 to 6 –Familiar, related items easier to remember –Gist of a story is easier to remember –Focus on knowledge about strategies Effective planning aids problem solving Application of effective strategies is key What is Nature of Children’s Information Processing?

© 2010 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Intelligence and Its Assessment Intelligence –Problem-solving skills and ability to learn from everyday experiences that allow adaptation –Individual differences exist –Verbal ability and problem-solving skills –Can only be measured indirectly Intelligence tests –Binet tests (later Stanford-Binet Tests) How Can Children’s Intelligence Be Described?

© 2010 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Intelligence and Its Assessment How Can Children’s Intelligence Be Described? Mental age (MA): measure of an individual’s level of mental development Intelligence quotient (IQ) Normal distribution MA CA X 100 IQ

© 2010 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. The Normal Curve and Stanford-Binet IQ Scores

© 2010 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Intelligence and Its Assessment The Wechsler Scales –Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence III – (WISC-III) –Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children – IV Integrated (WISC-IV integrated) –Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS-III) How Can Children’s Intelligence Be Described?

© 2010 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Types of Intelligence Sternberg’s Triarchic theory –3 main forms; individual patterns vary Analytic intelligence Creative intelligence Practical intelligence –Some patterns favored conventional schooling –Creative patterns not always ‘top-of-the-class’ –Wisdom concept added in 2009 Tested through problem solving How Can Children’s Intelligence Be Described?

© 2010 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Types of Intelligence Gardner’s eight types of intelligence (a.k.a. frames of mind) –Verbal –Mathematical –Spatial –Bodily-Kinesthetic Everyone has all to varying degrees How Can Children’s Intelligence Be Described? –Musical –Interpersonal –Intrapersonal –Naturalist

© 2010 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Evaluating Multiple Intelligences Controversial views –Stimulated educators to think more about children’s competencies –Motivated new educational program development and assessment –Some critics say views go too far –Controversy exists: multiple vs. general Culture –Conceptual differences exist; cultural values influence what is learned, rewarded How Can Children’s Intelligence Be Described?

© 2010 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Interpreting Differences in IQ Scores Influence of genetics –Comparison of identical and fraternal twins Identical twins: reared together and apart Effects of environmental change –Heritability: variance due to genetics Controversial; not without flaws Environment affected by many factors Parenting, education, ongoing change in culture/society, personal experiences How Can Children’s Intelligence Be Described?

© 2010 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Interpreting Differences in IQ Scores Environmental influences –Flynn Effect: IQ scores increasing rapidly –Emphasis on prevention, not remedial –Early interventions High-quality child care More focus on poor children Continue programs into adolescence –Gaps between U.S. racial/ethnic groups Gap narrows in college How Can Children’s Intelligence Be Described?

© 2010 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Interpreting Differences in IQ Scores Creating Culture-Fair Tests –Tests free of cultural bias –Two types devised Items known in all SES/ethnic backgrounds No verbal questions –Difficulty in creating Time limits may create bias Language differences/picture unfamiliarity Individual differences of experiences How Can Children’s Intelligence Be Described?

© 2010 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Interpreting Differences in IQ Scores Using Intelligence Tests –Effectiveness depends on user’s skills –Avoid stereotyping and expectations –IQ is not sole indicator of competence –Use caution in interpreting overall IQ scores Extremes of intelligence –Mental retardation (organic, cultural-familial) –Giftedness (IQ of 130 or more) How Can Children’s Intelligence Be Described?

© 2010 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Interpreting Differences in IQ Scores Characteristics of giftedness –Three criteria Precocity Marching to their own drummer A passion to master –Product of both heredity and environment –Currently, controversy over definitions –Negative consequences for being ‘gifted’ How Can Children’s Intelligence Be Described?

© 2010 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Vocabulary, Grammar, and Metalinguistic Awareness Children gain new skills in school –Alphabetic principle: sounds of language –Begin to categorize vocabulary; mastery increases with age –Learn to use language in complex manner, producing connected discourse –Metalinguistic awareness Knowledge about language Pragmatics: culturally appropriate uses What Changes in Language Development Occur in Childhood?

© 2010 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Reading What Changes in Language Development Occur in Childhood? Phonetics approach Whole-language approach Instruction should parallel children’s natural language learning; reading materials should be whole and meaningful Stresses phonetics and basic rules for translating symbols into sounds; early reading instruction should involve simplified materials

© 2010 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Bilingualism and Second Language Learning Sensitive periods for language learning vary across different language systems –May be easier for late learners like adults –Adults may learn faster than children –Children’s final attainment level is higher U.S. behind in children using 2 nd language –Bilingualism has positive effect on child’s cognitive functioning, reading abilities What Changes in Language Development Occur in Childhood?

© 2010 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Extrinsic and Intrinsic Motivation Extrinsic: external rewards, punishments Intrinsic: internal desires, perceptions –Emphasizes self-determination Motivation can be enhanced –Create engaging environments –Encourage self-responsibility External and intrinsic can operate together What Characterizes Children’s Achievement?

© 2010 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Mastery Motivation and Mindset Mastery motivation: task-oriented –Focus on learning strategies, process of achievement –Remember, adapt what worked before Helpless orientation: trapped by difficulty –Blame difficulty on lack of ability –Become anxious, failure becomes reality Performance orientation –Focus on outcomes, goal is ‘winning’ What Characterizes Children’s Achievement?

© 2010 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Mastery Motivation and Mindset Mindset: cognitive view of one’s self –Fixed mindset Belief that qualities are ‘carved in stone’ and cannot change similar to helpless orientation –Growth mindset Belief that qualities can change; efforts can improve performance similar to mastery orientation What Characterizes Children’s Achievement?

© 2010 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Self- Efficacy Belief that one can master situation and produce favorable outcomes –Common with mastery motivation and intrinsic motivation –Linked to effort and persistency –Critical factor in achievement Self-efficacy influences selection, choices What Characterizes Children’s Achievement?

© 2010 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Goal setting, Planning, and Self-regulation Self-efficacy and achievement improve when individuals set goals that are: –Specific –Proximal –Challenging Long-term and short-term are needed It is important to: –Monitor progress –Evaluate outcomes What Characterizes Children’s Achievement?

© 2010 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Social Relationships and Contexts Achievement affected by: –Relationships with parents, peers, teachers Child-rearing practices are very important Home activities/experiences important Peers can have positive or negative effect Teachers’ roles can help/harm motivation –Social contexts of ethnicity and culture Minority disadvantages or deficits? Distinct cultural differences have impact What Characterizes Children’s Achievement?

© 2010 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. The End 12