II. How do societies exploit their water resources? A. Hydraulic infrastructure – Wells (pumping underground water) – Dams (storing water) – Canals (transporting water) – Dikes (for holding water back) – Run-off ditches (for draining water)

Consumption of agricultural water by type of irrigation 2006 Water Use SystemAverage consumption M3/ha Spraying4576 Drip Irrigation3811 Gravitational (e.g. canals)6161 Irrigating all surfaces4950 Population connected to modern used water treatment plants In % of the population In % of the population Water Production through desalinization of seawater In hm3/day In hm3/day

Major Water Projects Larger and larger dams – enable irrigation – Provide electricity – Control water flow to avoid flash floods Itaipu dam between Brazil & Paraguay Dams on the Tigrus and Euphrates rivers – Water transfer Allows water to be transported for agriculture and tourism (Spain) Provides water for large urban centers located hundreds of kms from the water source (The Colorado River)

Newer Water Technology Pumping water from fossil layers Desalinization plants Used water treatment plants

B. Development of water resources modeled by societies and their environment Water resource management has shaped areas and populations – Infrastructure – collective access/management – E.g. rice fields SE Asia, rice fields demand collective effort to manage water

Rice Fields: spaces and populations dependent on water

Oasis Example – Located near water sources (underground) – Places of high population density in arid regions – E.g. Saharan Desert

Huertas Vast zones of irrigated greenhouses Prevalent in Andalousia and other areas of the Mediterranean

Consequences of Major Water Works Can lead to – complete transformation of landscape – Upsetting populations Examples – Major dams form reservoir lakes flooding large areas (3 gorges dam, China) – Forced displacement of populations – Massive draining of water supplies (e.g. irrigation) and water transfer can cause lakes & rivers to dry up (Colorado River, Aral Sea)

3 Gorges Dam

Water Map China – 3 Gorges Dam

Environmental Problems Yangtze River Case Study 3 Gorges Dam

Water Flow of Yangtze River

Pollution of the Yangtze River

Water transfers- a quick fix? Receiving areaSource area

Beijing Tianjin Eastern Route 1,155km long diversion Central routes 1267 km diversion. May have to use some water from 3 Gorges reservoir to help Western Routes Work starts 2010, at high altitude, very difficult 500kms at m above sea level Demand from industrial centres, high population density and intensive agriculture. Low rainfall and over abstracted groundwater: physical scarcity Industrial growth along routeways will exacerbate existing pollution problems Changes in water balances: reduced water in Yangtze means less dilution and more pollution Displaced people especially from Dang Jiang Kou dam Yellow River Yangtze River South China Sea CHINA Shanghai 0 mls 250 Mega Tech Fixes: China’s South–North water transfer Originally planned 1952, started 2002, due to finish Chief player: Government sponsored ‘South to North Water Transfer Project Company, with each province having a local water company. Involves huge civil engineering works, 3 major canals, pipelines, tunnels, pumping stations One of the largest water transfers globally. Aim: to divert 45bn m3/year from the water surplus river basins of the S and E to the water deficit areas of the North, especially Beijing and Tianjin

Video: China’s Parched North Water crisis (see map on next slide) What has led to some of China’s water scarcity problems? Examples of existing schemesProposed schemes International Lesotho to South Africa: Lesotho Highlands Water Project Turkey to Israel by tanker National: Snowy Mountains- Australia Melamchi Nepal Tagus-Mercia Spain International Turkey to Israel undersea pipelines Austrian Alps to Spain + Greece by pipeline National: South-North transfer- China Ebro -Spain Ob to the Aral Sea NAWAPA Alaska to California Major Water Transfer Schemes

Water Management Spain Case Study

The Colorado River: A Case Study Video: The Colorado: a river in peril? 0’52 Video: Colorado River: America’s Most Endangered River 2013

Human influences on water supply and scarcity Humans affect the hydrological cycle at many points of flows and storage:

In developing countries, 70% of industrial wastes are dumped untreated into waters where they pollute the usable water supply. Source:World Water Assessment Programme (WWAP)

Water Security: a definition “T he capacity of a population to safeguard sustainable access to adequate quantities of acceptable quality water for sustaining livelihoods, human well-being, and socio-economic development, for ensuring protection against water-borne pollution and water- related disasters, and for preserving ecosystems in a climate of peace and political stability.”

WATER SECURITY Core elements necessary to achieving and maintaining water security: Protection of livelihoods, human rights, and cultural and recreational values; Preservation and protection of ecosystems in water allocation and management systems in order to maintain their ability to deliver and sustain the functioning of essential ecosystem services; Water supplies for socio-economic development and activities (such as energy, transport, industry, tourism); Collection and treatment of used water to protect human life and the environment from pollution; Collaborative approaches to transboundary water resources management within and between countries to promote freshwater sustainability and cooperation; The ability to cope with uncertainties and risks of water-related hazards, such as floods, droughts and pollution, among others; Good governance and accountability, and the due consideration of the interests of all stakeholders through appropriate and effective legal regimes; transparent, participatory and accountable institutions; properly planned, operated and maintained infrastructure; and capacity development.

The risks of water insecurity What are the potential implications of an increasingly ‘water insecure’ world? Water supply problems Increasing water shortages may be more important than energy shortages- because there is no alternative! Water conflicts Where demand exceeds supply and no effective management operates, then there will be conflicts between the various players involved Water geopolitics The conflicts between nation states, despite the international agreement called the Helsinki Rules designed to create more equitable use of water extending across boundaries Water transfers Of this precious resource by either diverting the actual river, or using canals. Long carried out at a small scale but increasingly over larger distances, and even transboundary

NPR : Water the Epic Struggle Water Scarcity

Drought Somali exodus linked to drought: – In 2011 alone, some 184,000 Somalis fled to neighboring countries, with water and food insecurity linked to drought in the Horn of Africa being one of the major driving factors VIDEO: Great Chinese Drought continuing – What are some of the causes and consequences of the drought problems in Northern China mentioned in the report? Source: UNHCR, 2011

Synopticity-Water-Energy Energy and Water: Solving Both Crises Together: Water and energy are the two most fundamental ingredients of modern civilization We consume massive quantities of water to generate energy, and we consume massive quantities of energy to deliver clean water Peak Oil is topical. Peak Water or ‘Blue Gold’ is less thought about. There are tensions between the two: An issue in energy rich states,which are semi arid/arid: to sell cheap oil or keep to power desalinisation plants Water is needed to generate energy. Energy is needed to deliver water. Both resources are limiting the other—and both may be running short. Is there a way out? water restrictions are hampering solutions for generating more energy energy problems, particularly rising prices, are curtailing efforts to supply more clean water.

A Delicate Balance WaterFoodEnergy Energy is needed to clean and transport water Water is needed to generate energy Water is needed to grow food Food transports (virtual) water Energy is needed to produce food Food can be used to produce energy

Reading Homework Chapter 5 Freshwater issues and conflict Water Security and the Global Water Agenda EU spotlight turns on Spain Spain suffers worst drought Middle East Water Management