European Imperialism in the Middle East and Africa

The Congresses of Vienna and Berlin prevented a major European war until but did not prevent wars of imperial conquest. Russia determined to take over land from Ottoman Empire. France focused on Algeria, encouraging local rulers to replace Ottoman appointed corsairs and Janissaries. British supported the Ottomans with weapons to oppose French. France completed conquest after 1870, encouraged Europeans to settle. – Cholera in 1860s helped to reduce local populations. – French encouraged corporate investments and commercial agriculture.

Britain keeps Ottoman Empire intact to prevent Russian and French expansion. Britain creates a buffer zone in Afghanistan to keep Russia away from India. France and Britain defeat Russia in Crimean War for reasons other than protection of Christians in the Ottoman Empire. German Unification in 1870–71 upset balance of power in Western Europe. Russia used new imbalance to move on Ottomans in the Balkans. – Checked by Britain before they could over take Ottomans.

To prevent Russian expansion in the Mediterranean, Britain took Cyprus. – Led Britain to become involved in Egypt, wealthiest part of Ottoman Empire. Egypt ruled by Muhammad Ali, who reorganized Nile agriculture to produce cotton on large estates. – Reorganized the army, using conscripted Egyptians. – Tried to take over Istanbul, but stopped by British.

Muhammad Ali Pasha al-Mas'ud ibn Agha 1769 – 1849

Muhammad Ali’s successors borrowed heavily from Europe. – French began building Suez Canal in – Britain took over Egyptian shares in – Britain and France took portion of Egyptian taxes to pay debt. Britain occupied Egypt in 1882 to put down revolt over debt payments. British led troops into Sudan 1883–1885, another major cotton export. – Religious uprising in Khartoum, led by Muhammad Ahmad. – A Sufi, he claimed to be the “Mahdi.” – Defeated at Battle of Omdurman in 1898.

Neither Britain nor Ottomans wanted direct responsibility of Egypt. – Britain runs Egypt as an undeclared colony. France gained control of Tunisia, by loaning money to independent beys – When the beys could not pay them back, the French took over in 1881.

Berlin Conference, 1884–1885 – Western nations set rules for colonizing Africa. Bismarck of Germany led the conference. Western powers had to create spheres of influence and occupy African colonies, not just claim the land. Enlightenment had raised interest in African geography and ethnology. Explorers such as Livingstone and Stanley added knowledge of sub-Saharan Africa.

David Livingstone, 1813 – 1873

Christian missionaries developed idea that the West was “civilizing” Africa. – Native converts trained first, followed by European missionaries after discovery of quinine in 1800s. – European missionaries believed they were superior to African Christians. “White Man’s Burden”

British control of Ghana expanded from trade forts on the coast to outright colonization in – Ashante specialized in exporting palm oil after 1807 prohibition of slave trade.

Prior to the “Scramble for Africa,” African jihadists successfully held off French along Senegal River. Jihadists promoted a reformed Islam, and converted African animists. Made Islam the dominant religion in West Africa.

European powers committed various atrocities in the process of colonization of Africa. Germany took over Tanganyika, led to Maji Maji rebellion. Germany determined to exterminate the Herero and Nama of Southwest Africa. King Leopold II of Belgium committed genocide in Congo. Only Ethiopia fought off colonization by defeating the Italians at Adowa in 1896.

III. Western Imperialism and Colonialism in Southeast Asia. A. Indonesia comprised of 17,000 islands, half uninhabited. 1. Sumatra, Java, Borneo, Sulawesi, and New Guinea are the largest and most populated. 2. Settled by Austronesians, and by 700 Buddhist kingdoms had been built. a. Sumatran kingdom dominated commercial trade in spices. b. Indonesians converted to Islam by 1300, created sultanate of Aceh. B. In 1511 Portuguese built a trade fort at Malacca, avoided Aceh and moved to spice islands of Maluku in C. Dutch East India Company, chartered in 1602, used Java as its trade center Took over Java by dominating local Islamic protectorates. 2. Economic collapse of Dutch company led to government of Netherlands taking over the colonial holdings in After Belgium broke from Netherlands in 1830, Dutch turned to Cultivation system in Indonesia. a. Forced natives to grow commercial crops or work Dutch plantations. b. Rice paddies converted, leading to famine. c. Commercial success led to further colonization in Indonesia. D. Spain used Manila as a port for Chinese trade and silver exports from America. 1. Philippines are a collection of 7,000 islands settled by Austronesians. 2. Farmers paid rents in rice and animals to support Manila. a. Early eighteenth century Spain began to further colonize Philippines. 3. Philippines difficult to control due to native resistance and English interference. a. Spain shifts from silver to commodities, led to class division between wealthy minority and mass of landless rural and urban workers. 4. Colony was an economic drain for Spain: no revenue and costly administration. 5. Leaders of Katipunan resistance group exiled to Hong Kong, brought back by Americans during Spanish-American War U.S. took Manila in 1899, with other Spanish territory in Cuba, Puerto Rico, and Guam. a. Emilio Anguinaldo, leader of Katipunan, led resistance against Spain. E. France took over southern Vietnam, Cochinchina, in 1858–1862 as a protectorate. 1. Claimed French missionaries and Vietnamese converts were tortured –1885 France took over rest of Vietnam, and built plantations for coffee, tea, and rubber, as well as rice. 3. Vietnamese nationalist resistance led by Phan Boi Chau, organized Vietnamese in Japan until expelled in 1909.