Copyright ©2011 by Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Pearson [imprint] Introductory Circuit Analysis, 12/e Boylestad Chapter 21 Decibels, Filters, and Bode Plots

Introductory Circuit Analysis, 12/e Boylestad Copyright ©2011 by Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Pearson [imprint] OBJECTIVES Develop confidence in the use of logarithms and decibels in the description of power and voltage levels. Become familiar with the frequency response of high- and low-pass filters. Learn to calculate the cutoff frequency and describe the phase response. Be able to calculate the cutoff frequencies and sketch the frequency response of a pass-band, stop-band, or double-tuned filter. Develop skills in interpreting and establishing the Bode response of any filter. Become aware of the characteristics and operation of a crossover network.

Introductory Circuit Analysis, 12/e Boylestad Copyright ©2011 by Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Pearson [imprint] INTRODUCTION The unit decibel (dB), defined by a logarithmic expression, is used throughout the industry to define levels of audio, voltage gain, energy, field strength, and so on.

Introductory Circuit Analysis, 12/e Boylestad Copyright ©2011 by Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Pearson [imprint] INTRODUCTION Logarithms Basic Relationships –Let us first examine the relationship between the variables of the logarithmic function. –The mathematical expression:

Introductory Circuit Analysis, 12/e Boylestad Copyright ©2011 by Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Pearson [imprint] INTRODUCTION Logarithms Some Areas of Application –The following are some of the most common applications of the logarithmic function: 1. The response of a system can be plotted for a range of values that may otherwise be impossible or unwieldy with a linear scale. 2. Levels of power, voltage, and the like can be compared without dealing with very large or very small numbers that often cloud the true impact of the difference in magnitudes. 3. A number of systems respond to outside stimuli in a nonlinear logarithmic manner. 4. The response of a cascaded or compound system can be rapidly determined using logarithms if the gain of each stage is known on a logarithmic basis.

Introductory Circuit Analysis, 12/e Boylestad Copyright ©2011 by Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Pearson [imprint] INTRODUCTION Logarithms FIG Semilog graph paper.

Introductory Circuit Analysis, 12/e Boylestad Copyright ©2011 by Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Pearson [imprint] INTRODUCTION Logarithms FIG Frequency log scale.

Introductory Circuit Analysis, 12/e Boylestad Copyright ©2011 by Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Pearson [imprint] INTRODUCTION Logarithms FIG Finding a value on a log plot. FIG Example 21.1.

Introductory Circuit Analysis, 12/e Boylestad Copyright ©2011 by Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Pearson [imprint] PROPERTIES OF LOGARITHMS There are a few characteristics of logarithms that should be emphasized: –The common or natural logarithm of the number 1 is 0 –The log of any number less than 1 is a negative number –The log of the product of two numbers is the sum of the logs of the numbers –The log of the quotient of two numbers is the log of the numerator minus the log of the denominator –The log of a number taken to a power is equal to the product of the power and the log of the number

Introductory Circuit Analysis, 12/e Boylestad Copyright ©2011 by Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Pearson [imprint] PROPERTIES OF LOGARITHMS Calculator Functions Using the TI-89 calculator, the common logarithm of a number is determined by first selecting the CATALOG key and then scrolling to find the common logarithm function. The time involved in scrolling through the options can be reduced by first selecting the key with the first letter of the desired function—in this case, L, as shown below, to find the common logarithm of the number 80.

Introductory Circuit Analysis, 12/e Boylestad Copyright ©2011 by Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Pearson [imprint] DECIBELS Power Gain Voltage Gain Human Auditory Response

Introductory Circuit Analysis, 12/e Boylestad Copyright ©2011 by Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Pearson [imprint] DECIBELS TABLE 21.1

Introductory Circuit Analysis, 12/e Boylestad Copyright ©2011 by Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Pearson [imprint] DECIBELS TABLE 21.2 Typical sound levels and their decibel levels.

Introductory Circuit Analysis, 12/e Boylestad Copyright ©2011 by Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Pearson [imprint] DECIBELS FIG LRAD (Long Range Acoustic Device) 1000X. (Courtesy of the American Technology Corporation.)

Introductory Circuit Analysis, 12/e Boylestad Copyright ©2011 by Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Pearson [imprint] DECIBELS Instrumentation FIG Defining the relationship between a dB scale referenced to 1 mW, 600Ω and a 3 V rms voltage scale.

Introductory Circuit Analysis, 12/e Boylestad Copyright ©2011 by Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Pearson [imprint] FILTERS Any combination of passive (R, L, and C) and/or active (transistors or operational amplifiers) elements designed to select or reject a band of frequencies is called a filter. In communication systems, filters are used to pass those frequencies containing the desired information and to reject the remaining frequencies.

Introductory Circuit Analysis, 12/e Boylestad Copyright ©2011 by Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Pearson [imprint] FILTERS In general, there are two classifications of filters: –Passive filters –Active filters

Introductory Circuit Analysis, 12/e Boylestad Copyright ©2011 by Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Pearson [imprint] FILTERS FIG Defining the four broad categories of filters.

Introductory Circuit Analysis, 12/e Boylestad Copyright ©2011 by Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Pearson [imprint] R-C LOW-PASS FILTER FIG Low-pass filter. FIG R-C low-pass filter at low frequencies.

Introductory Circuit Analysis, 12/e Boylestad Copyright ©2011 by Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Pearson [imprint] R-C LOW-PASS FILTER FIG R-C low-pass filter at high frequencies. FIG V o versus frequency for a low- pass R-C filter.

Introductory Circuit Analysis, 12/e Boylestad Copyright ©2011 by Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Pearson [imprint] R-C LOW-PASS FILTER FIG Normalized plot of Fig

Introductory Circuit Analysis, 12/e Boylestad Copyright ©2011 by Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Pearson [imprint] R-C LOW-PASS FILTER FIG Angle by which V o leads V i.

Introductory Circuit Analysis, 12/e Boylestad Copyright ©2011 by Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Pearson [imprint] R-C LOW-PASS FILTER FIG Angle by which V o lags V i.

Introductory Circuit Analysis, 12/e Boylestad Copyright ©2011 by Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Pearson [imprint] R-C LOW-PASS FILTER FIG Low-pass R-L filter. FIG Example 21.5.

Introductory Circuit Analysis, 12/e Boylestad Copyright ©2011 by Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Pearson [imprint] R-C LOW-PASS FILTER FIG Frequency response for the low-pass R-C network in Fig

Introductory Circuit Analysis, 12/e Boylestad Copyright ©2011 by Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Pearson [imprint] R-C LOW-PASS FILTER FIG Normalized plot of Fig

Introductory Circuit Analysis, 12/e Boylestad Copyright ©2011 by Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Pearson [imprint] R-C HIGH-PASS FILTER FIG High-pass filter.

Introductory Circuit Analysis, 12/e Boylestad Copyright ©2011 by Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Pearson [imprint] R-C HIGH-PASS FILTER FIG R-C high-pass filter at very high frequencies. FIG R-C high-pass filter at f = 0 Hz.

Introductory Circuit Analysis, 12/e Boylestad Copyright ©2011 by Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Pearson [imprint] R-C HIGH-PASS FILTER FIG V o versus frequency for a high-pass R-C filter.

Introductory Circuit Analysis, 12/e Boylestad Copyright ©2011 by Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Pearson [imprint] R-C HIGH-PASS FILTER FIG Normalized plot of Fig

Introductory Circuit Analysis, 12/e Boylestad Copyright ©2011 by Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Pearson [imprint] R-C HIGH-PASS FILTER FIG Phase-angle response for the high-pass R-C filter.

Introductory Circuit Analysis, 12/e Boylestad Copyright ©2011 by Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Pearson [imprint] R-C HIGH-PASS FILTER FIG High-pass R-L filter.

Introductory Circuit Analysis, 12/e Boylestad Copyright ©2011 by Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Pearson [imprint] R-C HIGH-PASS FILTER FIG Normalized plots for a low-pass and a high-pass filter using the same elements.

Introductory Circuit Analysis, 12/e Boylestad Copyright ©2011 by Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Pearson [imprint] R-C HIGH-PASS FILTER FIG Phase plots for a low-pass and a high-pass filter using the same elements.

Introductory Circuit Analysis, 12/e Boylestad Copyright ©2011 by Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Pearson [imprint] PASS-BAND FILTERS FIG Series resonant pass-band filter.

Introductory Circuit Analysis, 12/e Boylestad Copyright ©2011 by Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Pearson [imprint] PASS-BAND FILTERS FIG Parallel resonant pass-band filter.

Introductory Circuit Analysis, 12/e Boylestad Copyright ©2011 by Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Pearson [imprint] PASS-BAND FILTERS FIG Series resonant pass-band filter for Example 21.7.

Introductory Circuit Analysis, 12/e Boylestad Copyright ©2011 by Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Pearson [imprint] PASS-BAND FILTERS FIG Pass-band response for the network.

Introductory Circuit Analysis, 12/e Boylestad Copyright ©2011 by Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Pearson [imprint] PASS-BAND FILTERS FIG Normalized plots for the pass-band filter in Fig

Introductory Circuit Analysis, 12/e Boylestad Copyright ©2011 by Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Pearson [imprint] PASS-BAND FILTERS FIG Pass-band filter.

Introductory Circuit Analysis, 12/e Boylestad Copyright ©2011 by Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Pearson [imprint] PASS-BAND FILTERS FIG Pass-band characteristics.

Introductory Circuit Analysis, 12/e Boylestad Copyright ©2011 by Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Pearson [imprint] PASS-BAND FILTERS FIG Pass-band filter. FIG Pass-band characteristics for the filter in Fig

Introductory Circuit Analysis, 12/e Boylestad Copyright ©2011 by Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Pearson [imprint] PASS-BAND FILTERS FIG Network of Fig at f = kHz.

Introductory Circuit Analysis, 12/e Boylestad Copyright ©2011 by Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Pearson [imprint] BAND-REJECT FILTERS Since the characteristics of a band- reject filter (also called stop-band or notch filter) are the inverse of the pattern obtained for the band-pass filter, a band-reject filter can be designed by simply applying Kirchhoff’s voltage law to each circuit.

Introductory Circuit Analysis, 12/e Boylestad Copyright ©2011 by Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Pearson [imprint] BAND-REJECT FILTERS FIG Demonstrating how an applied signal of fixed magnitude can be broken down into a pass-band and band-reject response curve.

Introductory Circuit Analysis, 12/e Boylestad Copyright ©2011 by Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Pearson [imprint] BAND-REJECT FILTERS FIG Band-reject filter using a series resonant circuit.

Introductory Circuit Analysis, 12/e Boylestad Copyright ©2011 by Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Pearson [imprint] BAND-REJECT FILTERS FIG Band-reject filter using a parallel resonant network.

Introductory Circuit Analysis, 12/e Boylestad Copyright ©2011 by Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Pearson [imprint] BAND-REJECT FILTERS FIG Band-reject filter.

Introductory Circuit Analysis, 12/e Boylestad Copyright ©2011 by Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Pearson [imprint] BAND-REJECT FILTERS FIG Band-reject characteristics.

Introductory Circuit Analysis, 12/e Boylestad Copyright ©2011 by Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Pearson [imprint] DOUBLE-TUNED FILTER Some network configurations display both a pass-band and a stop-band characteristic, such as shown in Fig Such networks are called double- tuned filters.

Introductory Circuit Analysis, 12/e Boylestad Copyright ©2011 by Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Pearson [imprint] DOUBLE-TUNED FILTER FIG Double-tuned networks.

Introductory Circuit Analysis, 12/e Boylestad Copyright ©2011 by Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Pearson [imprint] BODE PLOTS There is a technique for sketching the frequency response of such factors as filters, amplifiers, and systems on a decibel scale that can save a great deal of time and effort and provide an excellent way to compare decibel levels at different frequencies. The curves obtained for the magnitude and/or phase angle versus frequency are called Bode plots (Fig ). Through the use of straight- line segments called idealized Bode plots, the frequency response of a system can be found efficiently and accurately.

Introductory Circuit Analysis, 12/e Boylestad Copyright ©2011 by Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Pearson [imprint] BODE PLOTS High-Pass R-C Filter FIG High-pass filter.

Introductory Circuit Analysis, 12/e Boylestad Copyright ©2011 by Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Pearson [imprint] BODE PLOTS High-Pass R-C Filter FIG Idealized Bode plot for the low-frequency region.

Introductory Circuit Analysis, 12/e Boylestad Copyright ©2011 by Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Pearson [imprint] BODE PLOTS High-Pass R-C Filter FIG Phase response for a high-pass R-C filter.

Introductory Circuit Analysis, 12/e Boylestad Copyright ©2011 by Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Pearson [imprint] BODE PLOTS High-Pass R-C Filter FIG Example

Introductory Circuit Analysis, 12/e Boylestad Copyright ©2011 by Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Pearson [imprint] BODE PLOTS High-Pass R-C Filter FIG Frequency response for the high-pass filter in Fig

Introductory Circuit Analysis, 12/e Boylestad Copyright ©2011 by Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Pearson [imprint] BODE PLOTS High-Pass R-C Filter FIG Phase plot for the high-pass R-C filter.

Introductory Circuit Analysis, 12/e Boylestad Copyright ©2011 by Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Pearson [imprint] BODE PLOTS Low-Pass R-C Filter FIG Low-pass filter.

Introductory Circuit Analysis, 12/e Boylestad Copyright ©2011 by Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Pearson [imprint] BODE PLOTS Low-Pass R-C Filter FIG Bode plot for the high-frequency region of a low-pass R-C filter.

Introductory Circuit Analysis, 12/e Boylestad Copyright ©2011 by Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Pearson [imprint] BODE PLOTS Low-Pass R-C Filter FIG Phase plot for a low-pass R-C filter.

Introductory Circuit Analysis, 12/e Boylestad Copyright ©2011 by Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Pearson [imprint] SKETCHING THE BODE RESPONSE FIG dB response of (a) low-pass filter and (b) high-pass filter.

Introductory Circuit Analysis, 12/e Boylestad Copyright ©2011 by Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Pearson [imprint] SKETCHING THE BODE RESPONSE FIG High-pass filter with attenuated output. FIG Determining R Th for the equation for cutoff frequency.

Introductory Circuit Analysis, 12/e Boylestad Copyright ©2011 by Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Pearson [imprint] SKETCHING THE BODE RESPONSE FIG Finding the normalized plot for the gain of the high-pass filter in Fig with attenuated output.

Introductory Circuit Analysis, 12/e Boylestad Copyright ©2011 by Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Pearson [imprint] SKETCHING THE BODE RESPONSE FIG dB plot for A’ v for the high-pass filter in Fig

Introductory Circuit Analysis, 12/e Boylestad Copyright ©2011 by Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Pearson [imprint] SKETCHING THE BODE RESPONSE

Introductory Circuit Analysis, 12/e Boylestad Copyright ©2011 by Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Pearson [imprint] SKETCHING THE BODE RESPONSE FIG dB plot of f/f1.

Introductory Circuit Analysis, 12/e Boylestad Copyright ©2011 by Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Pearson [imprint] SKETCHING THE BODE RESPONSE

Introductory Circuit Analysis, 12/e Boylestad Copyright ©2011 by Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Pearson [imprint] ADDITIONAL PROPERTIES OF BODE PLOTS TABLE 21.3 Idealized Bode plots for various functions.

Introductory Circuit Analysis, 12/e Boylestad Copyright ©2011 by Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Pearson [imprint] APPLICATIONS Attenuators Noise Filters

Introductory Circuit Analysis, 12/e Boylestad Copyright ©2011 by Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Pearson [imprint] APPLICATIONS FIG Passive coax attenuator.

Introductory Circuit Analysis, 12/e Boylestad Copyright ©2011 by Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Pearson [imprint] APPLICATIONS FIG Tee (T) configuration. FIG Wye (Y) configuration.

Introductory Circuit Analysis, 12/e Boylestad Copyright ©2011 by Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Pearson [imprint] APPLICATIONS FIG dB attenuator: (a) loaded; (b) finding Ro.

Introductory Circuit Analysis, 12/e Boylestad Copyright ©2011 by Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Pearson [imprint] APPLICATIONS FIG Determining the voltage levels for the 1 dB attenuator in Fig (a).

Introductory Circuit Analysis, 12/e Boylestad Copyright ©2011 by Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Pearson [imprint] APPLICATIONS FIG Noise reduction in a tape recorder.

Introductory Circuit Analysis, 12/e Boylestad Copyright ©2011 by Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Pearson [imprint] APPLICATIONS FIG Noise reduction in a tape recorder.

Introductory Circuit Analysis, 12/e Boylestad Copyright ©2011 by Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Pearson [imprint] APPLICATIONS FIG Noise generation: (a) due to a car alternator; (b) from a push-pull amplifier.

Introductory Circuit Analysis, 12/e Boylestad Copyright ©2011 by Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Pearson [imprint] APPLICATIONS FIG Regulator: (a) effect of spike in current on the input side; (b) noise reduction.

Introductory Circuit Analysis, 12/e Boylestad Copyright ©2011 by Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Pearson [imprint] COMPUTER ANALYSIS PSpice FIG Using PSpice to analyze a double-tuned filter.

Introductory Circuit Analysis, 12/e Boylestad Copyright ©2011 by Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Pearson [imprint] COMPUTER ANALYSIS PSpice FIG Magnitude plot versus frequency for the voltage across R L of the network in Fig

Introductory Circuit Analysis, 12/e Boylestad Copyright ©2011 by Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Pearson [imprint] COMPUTER ANALYSIS PSpice FIG dB and magnitude plot for the voltage across R L of the network in Fig

Introductory Circuit Analysis, 12/e Boylestad Copyright ©2011 by Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Pearson [imprint] COMPUTER ANALYSIS Multisim FIG High-pass R-C filter to be investigated using PSpice.