Physical and Cognitive Development in Adolescence Chapter 11 © 2009 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc

Guideposts for Study What is adolescence, when does it begin and end, and what opportunities and risks does it entail? What physical changes do adolescents experience, and how do these changes affect them psychologically? What brain developments occur during adolescence, and how do they affect adolescent behavior? What are some common health problems in adolescence, and how can they be prevented? © 2009 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc

Guideposts for Study How do adolescents’ thinking and use of language differ from younger children’s? On what basis do adolescents make moral judgments? What factors affect adolescents’ school success and their educational and vocational planning and preparation? © 2009 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc

Adolescence and Puberty The passage from childhood to adulthood Puberty Process that leads to sexual maturity or fertility © 2009 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc

Adolescence as Social Construction No such concept in preindustrial societies Today, adolescence is a global phenomenon Time for growth and change Stereotypes of risk-taking behaviors © 2009 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc

Box 11.1 Globalization of Adolescence Adolescence is no longer a Western phenomenon In many nonwestern countries, adolescent boys and girls live in separate worlds Puberty heightens preparation for gender roles Cultural change is complex © 2009 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc

Puberty Adrenarche Gonadarche Between ages 6 and 9 Maturing of the adrenal glands Production or androgens (DHEA) Gonadarche Maturing of the sex organs Girls: ovaries increase estrogen Boys: testes increase androgens © 2009 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc

Physical Changes of Puberty Both males and females: Growth spurt Pubic hair Deeper voice Muscular growth © 2009 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc

Girls Puberty Onset Boys Between ages 8 and 10 Between ages 9 and 11 © 2009 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc

Primary Sex Characteristics Females Ovaries Fallopian tubes Uterus Vagina Males Testes Penis Scrotum Seminal vesicles Prostate gland © 2009 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc

Secondary Sex Characteristics Females Breasts Pelvis changes Males Broad Shoulders Facial Hair © 2009 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc

Adolescent Growth Spurt A rapid increase in height and weight Typically lasts about 2 years Results in common ‘gawkiness’ Teens become more concerned about their appearance © 2009 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc

Signs of Sexual Maturity Spermarche First ejaculation Nocturnal emission (wet dream) Average at age 13 Menarche First menstruation (first period) Average at age 12 ½ © 2009 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc

Secular Trend A decrease in average age of pubertal onset Possible explanations: Higher standard of living/better nutrition Overweight Relationship with father Pheromones © 2009 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc

Adolescent Brain A “work in progress” Immaturity of adolescent brain has led to questions of legal responsibility Risk taking comes from two brain networks Socioemotional network (i.e. peer influence) Cognitive control network (responses to stimuli) © 2009 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc

Two Major Brain Changes Growth Spurt Chiefly in frontal lobes Reasoning, judgment, and impulse control Gray Matter Growth Continued myelination Facilitates maturation of cognitive abilities © 2009 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc

Physical Activity Exercise in adolescence is usually much less than in childhood. 1/3 of U.S. high school students do NOT engage in enough physical activity. U.S. adolescents exercise less than in previous generations and less than those other countries. © 2009 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc

Sleep Needs Average sleep declines to less than 8 hours at age 16 Still, many adolescents do not get enough sleep © 2009 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc

Sleep Patterns Changes in circadian timing and melatonin may account for tendency to stay up late. School schedules are out of sync with biological rhythms. Tendency to be sleepy during the day and ‘sleep in’ on weekends to make up for loss © 2009 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc

Nutrition U.S. adolescents have less healthy diets than other industrialized countries Fewer fruits and vegetables More sweets, chocolates, and junk food © 2009 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc

Obesity/Overweight U.S. teens are more likely to be overweight than their age-mates in industrialized countries—numbers tripled between 1980 and 2004. Average teen girl needs ~2200 calories/day Average teen boy needs ~2800 calories/day © 2009 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc

Body Image How one believes one looks Concern most intense during adolescence Pattern is more intense with females  Normal increase in girls’ body fat African-American girls are more satisfied with their bodies than are Caucasian girls © 2009 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc

Anorexia Nervosa Self-starvation Distorted body image Constantly dieting and believe they are fat May cause irregularity or cessation of menstruation Often good students and ‘perfectionists’ © 2009 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc

Bulimia Nervosa Bingeing and undoing of caloric intake on regular basis ‘Undo’ calories by: Self-induced vomiting Excessive exercise Laxatives or enemas Diuretics Dieting or fasting © 2009 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc

Treatment of Anorexia and Bulimia Immediate goal is to get patient to eat and gain weight Patients may be hospitalized if severely malnourished Behavior therapy – reward eating Cognitive therapy – change body image Institutional settings and family therapy © 2009 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc

Drug Use and Abuse Substance Use Dependence or Addiction Harmful use of alcohol or other drugs Dependence or Addiction Can be psychological or physiological Especially dangerous for adolescents because of changing brain structures © 2009 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc

Trends in Drug Use © 2009 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc

Risk Factors for Drug Abuse Difficult temperament Poor impulse control and sensation seeking  Biochemical basis and/or family influence Genetic predisposition or inconsistent parenting Early and persistent behavior patterns Peer rejection, alienation, or rebelliousness Attitudes toward drug use and early initiation © 2009 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc

Common Adolescent Drugs Alcohol Marijuana Tobacco © 2009 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc

Depression Prevalence increases during adolescence Occurs in 9% ages 12-17, only 40% treated Girls more susceptible than boys Can manifest as: Sadness Irritability Boredom Inability to experience pleasure © 2009 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc

Causes of Death in Adolescence Vehicular Accidents Leading cause of death among U.S. teens Firearms Homicide, suicide and accidental deaths One-third of all injury deaths Suicide Almost one-fourth of U.S. high-school students have seriously considered suicide © 2009 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc

Piagetian Cognitive Development: Formal Operations A capacity for abstract thought A more flexible way to manipulate information Usually develops around age 11 Also has emotional implications  “I hate exploitation” © 2009 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc

Piagetian Tasks for Formal Operations © 2009 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc

Hypothetical-Deductive Reasoning Problem-solving skills Developing a hypothesis and an experiment to test it Imagining relationships systematically Piaget attributed acquiring this new skill to: Brain maturation Expanding environmental opportunities © 2009 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc

Evaluating Piaget’s Theory Many late adolescents and adults (around1/3) are incapable of abstract thought Fails to capture the role or context of the situation The theory does not fully consider the role of metacognition © 2009 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc

Elkind: Immature Aspects of Thought Idealism and criticalness Argumentativeness Indecisiveness Apparent hypocrisy Self-consciousness  Imaginary Audience Specialness and Invulnerability  Personal Fable © 2009 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc

Changes in Information Processing Structural: Increases in processing capacity Expansion of working memory allows adolescents to deal with complex problems Functional Increased ability to obtain, handle and retain information Mathematical and scientific reasoning Improved proficiency in drawing conclusions © 2009 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc

Structural Change in Long-Term Memory Increase in long-term memory capacity: Declarative knowledge Procedural knowledge Conceptual knowledge © 2009 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc

Language Development Adolescents can discuss abstractions:  Love  Freedom  Justice Frequently use such terms as:  However  Otherwise  Therefore © 2009 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc

Kohlberg’s Levels of Moral Reasoning Stage of Reasoning Pre-Conventional Punishment and Obedience Instrumental Purpose and Exchange Conventional Approval of Others: ‘The Golden Rule’ Social Concern and Conscience Post-Conventional Contracts, Rights and Democratic Laws Universal Ethical Principles © 2009 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc 40

Concerns About Kohlberg’s Theory Role of family influences Validity for women and girls Gilligan’s theory: An ethic of care Cross-cultural validity © 2009 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc

Influences on School Achievement Self-efficacy beliefs Parenting styles Ethnicity Peer influences Gender © 2009 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc

School Influences on Achievement What is the quality of the school? Does the student like his/her school? Does the school tailor teaching to students’ abilities? Does the school help students transition to college? © 2009 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc

Dropping out of High School 3.8% of high school students dropped out during 2004-2005 school year Students at greatest risk: Low SES Males Hispanics Students with low ‘active engagement’ © 2009 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc

Factors That Promote Active Engagement at School Family encouragement Small class size Warm and supportive school environment Early education programs © 2009 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc

Influences on Students’ Goals Parental attitudes towards academics Gender and gender-stereotyping The educational system Are schools rewarding creativity? OR ……..…rote memorization? © 2009 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc

Guiding Non-College-Bound Students Vocational counseling Vocational training programs Community colleges On-the-job training © 2009 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc