There Are Three Major Types of Rocks (2) Igneous – forms the bulk of earth’s crust Granite (formed underground) Lava rock Metamorphic Anthracite → coal Slate → shale Marble → limestone

The Earth’s Rocks Are Recycled Very Slowly Rock cycle Slowest of the earth’s cyclic processes Dolomite (see the shells)and a cave of limestone

Heat, pressure, stress Magma (molten rock) Erosion Transportation Weathering Deposition Igneous rock Granite, pumice, basalt Sedimentary rock Sandstone, limestone Heat, pressure Cooling Heat, pressure, stress Magma (molten rock) Figure 14.13 Natural capital: the rock cycle is the slowest of the earth’s cyclic processes. Rocks are recycled over millions of years by three processes: erosion, melting, and metamorphism, which produce sedimentary, igneous, and metamorphic rocks. Rock from any of these classes can be converted to rock of either of the other two classes, or can be recycled within its own class (Concept 14-2). Question: What are three ways in which the rock cycle benefits your lifestyle? Melting Metamorphic rock Slate, marble, gneiss, quartzite Fig. 14-13, p. 354

14-3 What Are Mineral Resources, and what are their Environmental Effects? Concept 14-3A Some naturally occurring materials in the earth’s crust can be extracted and made into useful products in processes that provide economic benefits and jobs. Concept 14-3B Extracting and using mineral resources can disturb the land, erode soils, produce large amounts of solid waste, and pollute the air, water, and soil.

We Use a Variety of Nonrenewable Mineral Resources Mineral resource (concentration of a naturally occurring material) Fossil fuels (coal) Metallic minerals (Al, Fe, Cu) Nonmetallic minerals (sand, gravel) Ore – contains enough of the mineral to be profitable to mine High-grade ore Low-grade ore Importance and examples of nonrenewable metal and nonmetal mineral resources

Mineral Categories Rock-forming minerals Most common minerals in the Earth’s crust, e.g. olivine, pyroxene, amphibole, mica, the clay minerals, feldspar, quartz, calcite and dolomite. Accessory minerals Minerals that are common but usually are found only in small amounts, e.g. chlorite, garnet, hematite, limonite, magnetite, and pyrite. Gems A mineral that is prized primarily for its beauty. (Although some gems, like diamonds are also used industrially), e.g. diamond, emerald, ruby, and sapphire.

Mineral Categories (cont.) Ore minerals Minerals from which metals or other elements can be profitably recovered, e.g. native gold, native silver, chalcopyrite, galena, and sphalerite. Industrial minerals Minerals are industrially important, but are mined for purposes other than the extraction of metals, e.g. halite for table salt.

Mineral Classification (according to their anions) Native elements: e.g. gold, silver, platinum, and copper. Oxides: Elements plus oxygen, Simple formulas, e.g. ice H2O, Hematite Fe2O3, Magnetite Fe3O4, quartz SiO2, corundum Al2O3, etc. Sulfides: Elements plus sulfur, e.g. Galena (PbS), Pyrite (FeS2), sphalerite (ZnS), and Chalcopyrite (CuFeS2.). Sulfates: Elements plus (SO4)2-, e.g. Gypsum (CaSO42H2O), anhydrite (CaSO4), and barite (BaSO4).

Mineral Classification (according to their anions) (cont.) Halides: Halogen elements plus various cations, e.g. Halite (NaCl), and sylvite (KCl). Phosphates: Elements plus (PO4)3- Carbonates: Elements plus (CO3)2- , e.g. calcite (CaCO3), and Dolomite (CaMg(CO3)2). cement 8) Silicates: elements plus silica ion(SiO4)4-, silicates make up 95% of the Earth’s crust.

QUARTZ –SiO2 Uses: silica for glass, electrical components, optical lenses, abrasives, gemstones, ornamental stone, building stone, etc. Quartz is the most common mineral on Earth. It is found in nearly every geological environment and is at least a component of almost every rock type. It is also the most varied in terms of varieties, colors and forms.

Color is as variable as the spectrum, but clear quartz is by far the most common color Luster is glassy to vitreous as crystals, while cryptocrystalline forms are usually waxy to dull but can be vitreous. Transparency: Crystals are transparent to translucent, cryptocrystalline forms can be translucent or opaque. Cleavage is very weak in three directions (rhombohedral). Fracture is conchoidal. Hardness is 7 Specific Gravity is 2.65 Streak is white.

Mineral Use Has Advantages and Disadvantages Advantages of the processes of mining and converting minerals into useful products Generates income, provides revenue for states and employment Disadvantages – energy intensive and can disturb the land, erode soil and produce solid waste and pollution

Separation of ore from gangue Smelting Melting metal Surface mining Metal ore Separation of ore from gangue Smelting Melting metal Conversion to product Discarding of product Recycling Figure 14.14 Life cycle of a metal resource. Each step in this process uses large amounts of energy and produces some pollution and waste. Stepped Art Fig. 14-14, p. 355

NATURAL CAPITAL DEGRADATION Extracting, Processing, and Using Nonrenewable Mineral and Energy Resources Steps Environmental Effects Mining Disturbed land; mining accidents; health hazards; mine waste dumping; oil spills and blowouts; noise; ugliness; heat Exploration, extraction Processing Solid wastes; radioactive material; air, water, and soil pollution; noise; safety and health hazards; ugliness; heat Transportation, purification, manufacturing Figure 14.15 Some harmful environmental effects of extracting, processing, and using nonrenewable mineral and energy resources (Concept 14-3B). Providing the energy required to carry out each step causes additional pollution and environmental degradation. Question: What are three mineral resources that you used today? Which of these harmful environmental effects might have resulted from obtaining and using these resources? Use Noise; ugliness; thermal water pollution; pollution of air, water, and soil; solid and radioactive wastes; safety and health hazards; heat Transportation or transmission to individual user, eventual use, and discarding Fig. 14-15, p. 356

There Are Several Ways to Remove Mineral Deposits (1) Surface mining Shallow deposits removed- overburden, (spoils) tailings(material dredged from streams) Open Pit Strip mining (when the ore is in horizontal beds) area (flat land) and contour strip (mountainous) Mountain top removal (Appalachian Mts) Subsurface mining Deep deposits removed

Natural Capital Degradation: Open-Pit Mine in Western Australia

Natural Capital Degradation: Contour Strip Mining Used in Hilly or Mountainous Region

Undisturbed land Overburden Highwall Coal seam Overburden Pit Bench Figure 14.17 Natural capital degradation: contour strip mining of coal used in hilly or mountainous terrain. Spoil banks Fig. 14-17, p. 357

Natural Capital Degradation: Mountaintop Coal Mining in West Virginia, U.S.

Mining Has Harmful Environmental Effects (1) Scarring and disruption of the land surface E.g., spoils banks Loss of rivers and streams Subsidence

Mining Has Harmful Environmental Effects (2) Major pollution of water and air Effect on aquatic life Large amounts of solid waste 21

Banks of Waste or Spoils Created by Coal Area Strip Mining in Colorado, U.S.

Illegal Gold Mine

Ecological Restoration of a Mining Site in New Jersey, U.S.

Removing Metals from Ores Has Harmful Environmental Effects (1) Ore extracted by mining Ore mineral Gangue Smelting Water pollution

Removing Meals from Ores Has Harmful Environmental Effects (2) Liquid and solid hazardous wastes produced Use of cyanide salt of extract gold from its ore Summitville gold mine: Colorado, U.S.

Natural Capital Degradation: Summitville Gold Mining Site in Colorado, U.S.

14-4 How Long Will Supplies of Nonrenewable Mineral Resources Last? Concept 14-4A All nonrenewable mineral resources exist in finite amounts, and as we get closer to depleting any mineral resource, the environmental impacts of extracting it generally become more harmful. Concept 14-4B An increase in the price of a scarce mineral resource can lead to increased supplies and more efficient use of the mineral, but there are limits to this effect.

Mineral Resources Are Distributed Unevenly (1) Most of the nonrenewable mineral resources supplied by United States Canada Russia South Africa Australia

Mineral Resources Are Distributed Unevenly (2) Strategic metal resources Manganese (Mn) Cobalt (Co) Chromium (Cr) Platinum (Pt)

Science Focus: The Nanotechnology Revolution Nanotechnology, tiny tech Nanoparticles Are they safe? Investigate potential ecological, economic, health, and societal risks Develop guidelines for their use until more is known about them

Supplies of Nonrenewable Mineral Resources Can Be Economically Depleted Future supply depends on Actual or potential supply of the mineral Rate at which it is used When it becomes economically depleted Recycle or reuse existing supplies Waste less Use less Find a substitute Do without

Depletion time A Depletion time B Depletion time C Mine, use, throw away; no new discoveries; rising prices A Recycle; increase reserves by improved mining technology, higher prices, and new discoveries B Production Recycle, reuse, reduce consumption; increase reserves by improved mining technology, higher prices, and new discoveries C Figure 14.23 Natural capital depletion: depletion curves for a nonrenewable resource (such as aluminum or copper) using three sets of assumptions. Dashed vertical lines represent times when 80% depletion occurs. Present Depletion time A Depletion time B Depletion time C Time Fig. 14-23, p. 361

Market Prices Affect Supplies of Nonrenewable Minerals Subsidies and tax breaks to mining companies keep mineral prices artificially low Does this promote economic growth and national security? Scarce investment capital hinders the development of new supplies of mineral resources

Case Study: The U.S. General Mining Law of 1872 Encouraged mineral exploration and mining of hard-rock minerals on U.S. public lands Developed to encourage settling the West (1800s) Until 1995, land could be bought for 1872 prices Companies must pay for clean-up now

Is Mining Lower-Grade Ores the Answer? Factors that limit the mining of lower-grade ores Increased cost of mining and processing larger volumes of ore Availability of freshwater Environmental impact Improve mining technology Use microorganisms, in situ Slow process What about genetic engineering of the microbes?

Can We Extend Supplies by Getting More Minerals from the Ocean? (1) Mineral resources dissolved in the ocean-low concentrations Deposits of minerals in sediments along the shallow continental shelf and near shorelines

Can We Extend Supplies by Getting More Minerals from the Ocean? (2) Hydrothermal ore deposits Metals from the ocean floor: manganese nodules Effect of mining on aquatic life Environmental impact

14-5 How Can We Use Mineral Resources More Sustainability? Concept 14-5 We can try to find substitutes for scarce resources, reduce resource waste, and recycle and reuse minerals.

We Can Find Substitutes for Some Scarce Mineral Resources (1) Materials revolution Nanotechnology Silicon High-strength plastics Drawbacks?

We Can Find Substitutes for Some Scarce Mineral Resources (2) Substitution is not a cure-all Pt: industrial catalyst Cr: essential ingredient of stainless steel

We Can Recycle and Reuse Valuable Metals Recycling Lower environmental impact than mining and processing metals from ores Reuse

There Are Many Ways to Use Mineral Resources More Sustainability How can we decrease our use and waste of mineral resources? Pollution and waste prevention programs Pollution Prevention Pays (3P) Cleaner production

Solutions: Sustainable Use of Nonrenewable Minerals

Case Study: Industrial Ecosystems: Copying Nature Mimic nature: recycle and reuse most minerals and chemicals Resource exchange webs Ecoindustrial parks Industrial forms of biomimicry Benefits

Surplus natural gas Electric power plant Sludge Pharmaceutical plant Local farmers Sludge Greenhouses Waste heat Waste heat Waste heat Fish farming Waste heat Surplus natural gas Electric power plant Oil refinery Fly ash Surplus sulfur Waste calcium sulfate Figure 14.25 Solutions: an industrial ecosystem in Kalundborg, Denmark, reduces waste production by mimicking a food web in natural ecosystems. The wastes of one business become the raw materials for another. Question: Is there an industrial ecosystem near where you live or go to school? If not, think about where and how such a system could be set up. Surplus natural gas Waste heat Cement manufacturer Sulfuric acid producer Wallboard factory Area homes Fig. 14-25, p. 367