Transformations in Europe, 1500 - 1750

I. Culture and Ideas

A. Religious Reformation Papacy – St. Peter’s Basilica Indulgences Martin Luther (1483 – 1546) Salvation from faith in Jesus Christ – not works Rejection of papal authority – Protestant Reformation Bible, printing press German support/nationalism

What do you believe was the motivation for Frederick the Wise to support Martin Luther? (Did religion or politics motivate his actions?)

Religious Reformation Continued… John Calvin (1509 – 1564) Faith not enough, salvation a gift from God – “predestined” Organization, lifestyle Religious movements connected to political circumstances Trent – Catholic Reformation Jesuits Wars of Religion

How was the Catholic campaign against Protestantism similar and different from other campaigns against heretics and non-Christians?

B. Traditional Thinking and Witch - Hunts Folklore/magic Christian teachings – miracles, devils, etc. Natural events – supernatural causes Lisbon – 1755 Accused women and their fates… Reformation’s focus on the Devil Fear of independent women Women’s sphere of influence

Why was there an increase in witch hunts in spite of new scientific and academic advances?

C. The Scientific Revolution Influence of Greco – Roman sources/Bible Aristotle – four elements and physics Pythagoras Scientific Revolution – observation Nicholas Copernicus (1473 – 1543) – heliocentric universe (Nasir al-Din) Tycho Braches and Johannes Kepler – elliptical orbits

The Scientific Revolution Continued… Galileo Galilei (1564 – 1642) – telescope Challenge to religious/traditional beliefs Galileo’s view of God’s truth Jesuits, Roman Inquisition, The Starry Messenger Robert Boyle – chemistry Isaac Newton (1642 – 1727) – common physics, law of gravity Hostility of the church, challenges to authority

Which scientist was most important to the Scientific Revolution and why?

D. The Early Enlightenment Laws of human behavior – Enlightenment Resistance to Enlightenment thinkers Reaction against religious violence Appreciation of non – Western examples of governance/behavior Optimistic about future of human behavior/institutions

II. Social and Economic Life

A. The Bourgeoisie Merchant ships – fluit, “East Indiaman” Dutch banks – investments, capital Cartography Population growth in London, Paris Bourgeoisie – work/lifestyle Netherlands – textile industry, used foreign raw materials, publishing endeavors Amsterdam – commercial fleets dominated overseas trade during 1600s

The Bourgeoisie continued… Family connections/merchant colonies in European cities Alliances with monarchies Joint – stock companies Stock exchanges Canals British/Dutch competition – English supremacy Gentry – alliances with old nobility; exemption from taxes

Most of the Dutch were Calvinists Most of the Dutch were Calvinists. What is the connection that is made between their capitalism and religion?

B. Peasants and Laborers Decline of serfdom/slavery in Western Europe – relation to the Americas Challenges to peasants – Little Ice Age Impact of new crops from Americas by 1700 Exports of wheat Deforestation – coke (1709), impact on peasants Spinning yarn Migration to cities - no relief from poverty Rebellions of the poor in Early Modern Europe – resentment against privileged/landowning classes, exemption from taxation

Why do you believe uprisings of the poor do not happen more often?

C. Women and the Family Women lower than men but mitigated by class/wealth Importance of a good marriage Choice in marriage/reasons for age Abandoned children/rape Solid education for sons – languages, business Exclusion/participation of women in Renaissance, Scientific Rev., Enlightenment

What avenues offered women the most independence during the early modern period? What was the cost of that independence?

III. Political Innovations

A. State Development Political diversity Holy Roman Empire – German Charles V – Habsburg – united Christian Europe vs. Ottomans French/German opposition German Wars of Religion and the Peace of Augsburg (1555) France, Spain, England strengthening central authority

B. Religious Policies Spain/France – defended Catholicism (Spanish Inquisition) French Wars of Religion – Henry of Navarre, Edict of Nantes England – Henry VIII, Catherine of Aragon, support of Parliament to make English monarch head of Church of England Disbanding of monasteries/church lands Not as many reforms as English Puritans wanted

C. Monarchies in England and France England – Charles I disbanded Parliament, needed help to gather taxes, Parliament wanted guarantees of rights – English Civil War in 1642 Charles I executed, Oliver Cromwell instated, eventually Charles II restored James II a Catholic threat Queen Mary and William of Orange – Glorious Revolution of 1688 English Bill of Rights 1689

Monarchies in England and France Continued… Estates General Monarchs sold appointments/efficient tax collection Louis XIV – Palace of Versailles, kept political intrigues out of Paris French model widely admired John Lock (1632 – 1704) – disputed divine right of monarchs, authority from consent of the governed

D. Warfare and Diplomacy Warfare common in Early Modern period Expensive/destructive Thirty Years War (1618 – 1648) European armed forces much stronger – larger armies, centralized command structures, training, fortifications Stalemates – navy Henry VIII – investment in navy, influence of the Dutch, creation of Great Britain Prevented Spain/France from uniting Balance of power

E. Paying the Piper Post 1600 – states needed more revenue for militaries Alliances with rising commercial elite – needed space AND support Spanish wars, religious expulsions, and aristocratic exemption from taxes American gold/silver – inflation Netherlands revolted against Spanish policies – 1648 achieved full independence

Paying the Piper Continued… United Netherlands decentralized – excelled in trade, commercial interests Rise of the English navy/merchant ships English “financial revolution” – taxed aristocracy, collected taxes directly, central bank France – some adjustments but stifled by aristocracy