Toussaint L’Ouverture

History of Haiti

Columbus l Arrived in New World in 1492 l Established base in Hispaniola l Discovered gold there

Spanish Settlers l Rushed to Hispaniola l Forced Indians to mine gold and raise food l By 1530 only few hundred Indians survived because of harsh treatment l Brought in slaves from Africa

Spanish Left l For more prosperous colonies l By 1606 so few left that Spanish king ordered those remaining to move closer to main city (Santo Domingo) Hispaniola, 1606 (Dutch map)

French, English, & Dutch l Settled north & west areas of island l Many became pirates –Attacked Spanish gold & silver shipments l Spain tried, unsuccessfully, to drive them out –In 1697, Spain recognized French control of western 1/3 of island

Renamed St. Dominique l French colonists brought African slaves l Developed large coffee & spice plantations l By 1788, 8 times more slaves (500,000) as colonists

Toussaint’s Background l Birth ?1743 to 1746 l Plantation on St. Dominique l Personal servant to humane man –Opportunity to learn

Toussaint’s Family l Eldest of 8 children l Father had been African chief l Parents & grandfather taught him: –History –Languages –Philosophy –Math –Family traditions –Christian faith

Island of Haiti, 1754 (French)

Course of Events in Struggle for Haitian Independence

1789 l French Revolution l National Assembly issued Declaration of the Rights of Man –Free people of color in St. Dominique did not get promised citizenship

1790 l March 8 l National Assembly –Voted to allow colonial whites to determine colony’s political life –People of color could not

1791 l May 15 l National Assembly gave all free men of color (with 2 free parents) full rights l This forced whites to consider separation from France

1791 l Aug l Slave revolt because of brutal slave system –Toussaint helped his master’s family escape l St. Dominique whites decided to fight for freedom from France

1791 l Toussaint joined fight –Doctor for St. Dominique army –Eventually a leader (with knowledge based on reading works by Caesar & others)

1791 l Sept. 24 l Assembly revoked May 15 th decree

1792 l March 28 l Assembly reversed again –All free men of color got full citizen rights

1792 l April 4 l Louis XVI signed May 15 th decree

1793 l February 1 l France declared war on Britain l Toussaint supported Spanish –Spanish king would be secure –French republic too insecure

1793 l August l National Convention abolished slavery in St. Dominique l By year’s end, Toussaint had conquered north-central St. Dominique for Spain

1793 l Spain and Britain –Encouraged slaves to get freedom from the French –May have had informal arrangement to divide colony

1794 l February 4 l France abolished slavery in colonies

1794 l May 6 l Toussaint abandoned Spanish –Spanish showed no signs of keeping word on freeing slaves –British had reinstated slavery –If freedom was his goal, he had no choice…support the French

1794 l He joined French on promise of freedom –Helped his family flee beforehand –Became brigadier general l Tide then swung in favor of French

1794 l July 22 l Peace agreement between France and Spain

1795 l Treaty of Basel –Spain ceded holdings to France –Ceased hostilities l Blacks who had remained loyal to Spanish flocked to Toussaint’s army

1796 l March 30 l Toussaint rescued French commander from Mulatto-led effort to depose him –In reward he was made lieutenant governor of St. Dominique

1797 l French Convention made Toussaint commander-in-chief l He resolved to quickly establish autonomous black state –Expelled French commissioner –Made agreement with Britain to end hostilities –Sought loyalty of Mulattos

1799 l After defeat of Spanish & British, he moved toward independence from France l Wanted to be on equal footing with France and other major powers

1799 l War of the Castes l French sought Mulatto support to retain dominion over colony l Toussaint’s army fought Mulattos

1799 l He asked US President John Adams for help –Adams wanted the arrangement –Yet US young, insecure nation l The alliance –Adams sent arms and ships –Toussaint would stop French from using island as base

1799 l French & US revolutions inspired him –Some officers had fought with French army in US War for Ind. l French governor gave him nickname L’Ouverture (break through enemy lines)

1799 l Jefferson –Referred to Toussaint’s army as cannibals –As President reversed Adams’ St. Dominique policies

1799 l Nov. 9—Napoleon came to power l Wanted: –Toussaint out –To reestablish slavery

1800 l May l Toussaint became military dictator l Believed it was most efficient l Worked on restoring order & productivity

1800 l Needed export-oriented economy l Re-imposed plantation system –Utilized non-slaves –Basically relied on forced labor

1800 l Oct. 1 l Secret treaty of San Ildefonso l Spain ceded Louisiana to France

1801 l Colonial Assembly approved constitution –Toussaint became Governor- General-For-Life l He “liberates” St. Dominique –Never formally severs bond with France

1801 l Constitution gave Napoleon reason for sending French troops –Technically French colony –Acting as independent state l It worried slave-holding nations such as Britain & US

1801 l Napoleon regarded St. Dominique as essential to French exploitation of New World l Napoleon is weakened –Toussaint drained resources of the colony

1802 l January l Napoleon sent troops to re- enslave Blacks of St. Dominique –Aided by Mulattos & Whites l Two of Toussaint’s lieutenants transferred their allegiance to French

1802 l May 5 l Toussaint, recognizing his weak position, surrendered l French assured him that he could retire quietly

1802 l June l Toussaint taken to France l Forbade his soldiers from retaliating against French prisoners

1802 l French commander, Rochambeau, retreated –Mutilated black prisoners –Left them to die slowly

1802 l Toussaint’s troops had French prisoners hanged within sight of French army

1802 l US newspapers covered uprisings with Toussaint as black Napoleon –Intensified US slaveholders’ fear of US slave revolt l Inspired British (on verge of abolishing slave trade) to keep it

1802 l Other Blacks who had sided with French now turned against them because of: –Betrayal of Toussaint –Napoleon’s restoration of slavery in Martinique

1803 l April 7 l Died of neglect in a jail in the Alps

1803 l April 30 l Louisiana Purchase –Napoleon needed money to fight British (began to consider sale on April 10) –Revolution in St. Dominique crushed hope of American empire

1803 l May 12 l Britain declared war on France –Aided Haitian rebels –Gave French someone to surrender to other than Blacks

1803 l November l French commander in St. Dominique surrendered to British –Never had gotten enough reinforcements and supplies

1804 l January 1 l Toussaint’s successor (one of his lieutenants) declared St. Dominique the independent country of Haiti l Jean Jacques Dessalines became Haiti's first emperor in 1804 –Gave it Arawak name Haiti –World's first independent black republic

1822—After Dominican Republic gains independence from Haiti

No Portrait While Alive l Well-known portrait was painted in 1832 by a Frenchman, influenced by 30 years of vilification, “a villain... this serpent which France has warmed in her bosom”

William Wordsworth’s “To Toussaint L’Ouverture” Toussaint, the most unhappy man of men! Whether the whistling Rustic tend his plough Within thy hearing, or thy head be now Pillowed in some deep dungeon ’ s earless den; O miserable Chieftain! Where and when Wilt thou find patience? Yet die not; do thou Wear rather in thy bonds a cheerful brow:

Though fallen thyself, never to rise again, Live, and take comfort. Thou hast left behind Powers that will work for thee: air, earth, and skies; There ’ s not a breathing of the common wind That will forget thee; thou hast great allies; Thy friends are exultations; agonies, And love, and man ’ s unconquerable mind.

Journals of a Soldier, Howard “This force (Toussaint) aided by disease and political events in Europe, defeated Napoleon’s ambition to build a great colonial empire in the Americas...”

Citizen Toussaint, Korngold l Korngold claims Toussaint entered into a secret treaty with the US on July 13, This was so that he would not send out troops against any English colony or the United States.

Citizen Toussaint, Korngold l “...but for the Negro general the (Louisiana)Territory might have remained a French colony.”

Citizen Toussaint, Korngold l “Napoleon’s ambition was to build a great colonial empire. The keystone of that empire was of course to be the incomparable colony of St. Domingo, from which France is said to have derived more profit than all other nations derived from their combined colonies in Asia, Africa, & America.”

Citizen Toussaint, Korngold l “The first step in Napoleon’s colonial program was…the elimination of Toussaint Louverture. The second was the retrocession by Spain, to the French Republic, of the Louisiana Territory, for… St. Domingo…(was)… dependent for its supplies on the United States,

Citizen Toussaint, Korngold a dangerous neighbor both by its political example and its commercial and maritime rivalry with the mother country. The First Consul hoped to correct this evil by substituting Louisiana for the United States as a source of supplies for St. Domingo.”

Citizen Toussaint, Korngold l “Had (he) succeeded (in subduing St. Dominique), Napoleon would have carried out his project, and the Louisiana Territory would have remained a French colony.”

Haiti and the Dominican Republic, Leyburn l “The part played by Toussaint for a brief moment in the history of the United States is full of significance. (I)f Napoleon had been successful in the re-conquest of Saint-Dominique he would have turned his attention to America rather than to Europe, for he had great colonial schemes.”

Decline l Revolution wrecked Haiti's economy l Continued decline –Years of strife between mulattos who dominated the economy and the majority black population –Disputes with neighboring Santo Domingo

1900s l After several dictatorships, bankrupt Haiti accepted U.S. receivership –Occupation by US Marines brought stability –Most densely populated WH nation l Democracy then followed by dictatorship l 1957—François Duvalier, “Papa Doc” –Secret police kept political stability with brutality l 1971—His son, Jean-Claude, or “Baby Doc,” succeeded after father’s death l 1980s, one of first countries to have AIDS epidemic –Fear of disease caused tourists to stay away –Tourist industry collapsed, causing rising unemployment –Unrest generated by economic crisis forced Baby Doc to flee in 1986

1990s l International community tried to establish democracy l 1991—First elected chief executive, Jean- Bertrand Aristide –Leftist Roman Catholic priest –Seemed to promise new era in Haiti l Military took control in coup nine months later l UN peacekeeping force, led by the US arrived in 1994 and restored Aristide to office l René Preval succeeded him in 1996 elections l US soldiers and UN peacekeepers left in 2000

2000 l Haiti's government remained ineffectual and economy was in ruins –Highest rates of AIDS, malnutrition, and infant mortality in region l 2000, former president Aristide reelected president –Elections boycotted by opposition –Foreign observers questioned results l US and other countries threatened Haiti with sanctions unless democratic procedures strengthened l Aristide, once charismatic champion of democracy, grew more authoritarian, incapable of improving people lives

2004 l Jan.—Violent protests (Haiti's bicentennial) –Protesters demanded Aristide resignation l February—full-blown armed revolt –Feb. 29—Aristide ousted because of protests, groups of armed rebels, and French and American pressure u US-led international force tried to restore order u Interim government took over l September—Hurricane Jeanne –Killed more than 2,400 people –Lawlessness and gang violence were widespread –Interim government had no control over some areas, which were run by armed former soldiers

2006 l Feb. 7—Held elections –Backed by 9,000 United Nations troops l Former prime minister and Aristide protégé René Préval, very popular among poor, seen as favorite l Election count indicated Préval's lead over other candidate dropping and that he would not win an outright majority l Préval contested election charging “massive fraud and gross errors had stained the process.” l Feb. 14—Interim government halted election count l Feb. 15--After votes recounted, Préval declared winner

l April 2008—Prime Minister Jacques-Édouard Alexis was removed from office by Senate –It held him responsible for poor economy l President Preval designated Ericq Pierre as new prime minister, but lower house of Parliament rejected Pierre l July—Parliament approved nomination of Michèle Pierre- Louis for prime minister –Second woman prime minister of Haiti l Nov. 2009—Senate voted to oust Prime Minister Pierre- Louis –International donors saw her as competent leader who could effectively use aid to improve infrastructure and economy l She was replaced by Jean-Max Bellerive

2010 Earthquake l Magnitude 7.0 earthquake l Struck 10 miles southwest of Port-au-Prince, the country's capital l Region's worst earthquake in 200+ years l Fatalities are expected to near 100,000 l Destroyed government buildings, foreign aid offices, and countless slums l Prime Minister Préval said, "Parliament has collapsed. The tax office has collapsed. Schools have collapsed. Hospitals have collapsed.“ l UN mission in Haiti was destroyed, 16 members of UN peacekeeping force in Haiti killed, and hundreds of UN employees missing

l Government –Constitution – 1987 –Executive president and bicameral legislature –Elections u President every five years u Chamber of Deputies every four years u Senate every six years l Economy –World Bank estimates 85% of people live below absolute poverty line –2/3’s of employed work in agriculture, mainly in coffee plantations which generate 25% of Haiti’s export earnings u Suffered from periodic droughts and low world prices u Sugar cane, sweet potatoes, cocoa also exported –Mining industry extracts marble, limestone and clay –Tourism, once promising, has all but vanished thanks to political instability Current Govt/Economy

Haiti Stats US l Per capita income: $1,300 l Population (2009 est.): 9,035,536 (growth rate: 1.8%) l Infant mortality rate: 59.7/1000 l Life expectancy: 60.7 l Density per sq km: 323 l Per capita income: $47,500 l Population (2009 est.): 307,212,123 (growth rate: 0.9%); l Infant mortality rate: 6.2/1000 l Life expectancy: 78.1 l Density per sq mi: 85

2010 Earthquake

Presidential Palace

Toussaint L’Ouverture