Transformations in Europe,

I. Culture and Ideas

A. Religious Reformation Papacy – St. Peters Basilica Indulgences Martin Luther (1483 – 1546) Salvation from faith in Jesus Christ – not works Rejection of papal authority – Protestant Reformation Bible, printing press German support/nationalism

Religious Reformation Continued… John Calvin (1509 – 1564) Faith not enough, salvation a gift from God – predestined Organization, lifestyle Religious movements connected to political circumstances Trent – Catholic Reformation Jesuits Wars of Religion

B. Traditional Thinking and Witch - Hunts Folklore/magic Christian teachings – miracles, devils, etc. Natural events – supernatural causes Lisbon – 1755 Accused women and their fates… Reformations focus on the Devil Fear of independent women Womens sphere of influence

C. The Scientific Revolution Influence of Greco – Roman sources/Bible Aristotle – four elements and physics Pythagoras Scientific Revolution – observation Nicholas Copernicus (1473 – 1543) – heliocentric universe Tycho Braches and Johannes Kepler – elliptical orbits

The Scientific Revolution Continued… Galileo Galilei (1564 – 1642) – telescope Challenge to religious/traditional beliefs Galileos view of Gods truth Jesuits, Roman Inquisition, The Starry Messenger Robert Boyle – chemistry Isaac Newton (1642 – 1727) – common physics, law of gravity Hostility of the church, challenges to authority

D. The Early Enlightenment Laws of human behavior – Enlightenment Resistance to Enlightenment thinkers Reaction against religious violence Appreciation of non – Western examples of governance/behavior Optimistic about future of human behavior/institutions

II. Social and Economic Life

A. The Bourgeoisie Population growth in London, Paris Bourgeoisie – work/lifestyle Netherlands – textile industry, used foreign raw materials, publishing endeavors Amsterdam – commercial fleets dominated overseas trade during 1600s Merchant ships – fluit, East Indiaman Dutch banks – investments, capital Cartography

The Bourgeoisie continued… Family connections/merchant colonies in European cities Alliances with monarchies Joint – stock companies Stock exchanges Canals British/Dutch competition – English supremacy Gentry – alliances with old nobility; exemption from taxes

B. Peasants and Laborers Decline of serfdom/slavery in Western Europe – relation to the Americas Challenges to peasants – Little Ice Age Impact of new crops from Americas by 1700 Exports of wheat Deforestation – coke (1709), impact on peasants Spinning yarn Migration to cities - no relief from poverty Rebellions of the poor in Early Modern Europe – resentment against privileged/landowning classes, exemption from taxation

C. Women and the Family Women lower than men but mitigated by class/wealth Importance of a good marriage Choice in marriage/reasons for age Abandoned children/rape Solid education for sons – languages, business Exclusion/participation of women in Renaissance, Scientific Rev., Enlightenment

III. Political Innovations

A. State Development Political diversity Holy Roman Empire – German Charles V – Habsburg – united Christian Europe vs. Ottomans French/German opposition German Wars of Religion and the Peace of Augsburg (1555) France, Spain, England strengthening central authority

B. Religious Policies Spain/France – defended Catholicism (Spanish Inquisition) French Wars of Religion – Henry of Navarre, Edict of Nantes England – Henry VIII, Catherine of Aragon, support of Parliament to make English monarch head of Church of England Disbanding of monasteries/church lands Not as many reforms as English Puritans wanted

C. Monarchies in England and France England – Charles I disbanded Parliament, needed help to gather taxes, Parliament wanted guarantees of rights – English Civil War in 1642 Charles I executed, Oliver Cromwell instated, eventually Charles II restored James II a Catholic threat Queen Mary and William of Orange – Glorious Revolution of 1688 English Bill of Rights 1689

Monarchies in England and France Continued… Estates General Monarchs sold appointments/efficient tax collection Louis XIV – Palace of Versailles, kept political intrigues out of Paris French model widely admired John Lock (1632 – 1704) – disputed divine right of monarchs, authority from consent of the governed

D. Warfare and Diplomacy Warfare common in Early Modern period Expensive/destructive Thirty Years War (1618 – 1648) European armed forces much stronger – larger armies, centralized command structures, training, fortifications Stalemates – navy Henry VIII – investment in navy, influence of the Dutch, creation of Great Britain Prevented Spain/France from uniting Balance of power

E. Paying the Piper Post 1600 – states needed more revenue for militaries Alliances with rising commercial elite – needed space AND support Spanish wars, religious expulsions, and aristocratic exemption from taxes American gold/silver – inflation Netherlands revolted against Spanish policies – 1648 achieved full independence

Paying the Piper Continued… United Netherlands decentralized – excelled in trade, commercial interests Rise of the English navy/merchant ships English financial revolution – taxed aristocracy, collected taxes directly, central bank France – some adjustments but stifled by aristocracy