The Process of Conducting Research

What is a theory? a set of general principles that explains the how and why of phenomena. a set of general principles that explains the how and why of phenomena. Theories are not directly testable. Theories are not directly testable.

What makes a good theory? Good theories are broad Good theories are broad Good theories are parsimonious (simple) Good theories are parsimonious (simple) Good theories are generative Good theories are generative

What is a hypothesis? an educated guess about how two or more variables are related. an educated guess about how two or more variables are related. Can be CAUSAL or DESCRIPTIVE or a QUESTION Can be CAUSAL or DESCRIPTIVE or a QUESTION Must be testable and falsifiable! Must be testable and falsifiable!

Are these testable? Eating breakfast improves academic performance. Eating breakfast improves academic performance. People should obey the law. People should obey the law. Owls can see better at night than chickadees. Owls can see better at night than chickadees. A rabbit’s foot will bring a person good luck. A rabbit’s foot will bring a person good luck. People are born with the capacity for evil. People are born with the capacity for evil.

Where do hypotheses come from? own ideas, observations, experiences own ideas, observations, experiences existing research existing research retesting previously tested hypothesis retesting previously tested hypothesis theories theories

The Scientific Process Theory Hypothesis Test Results

Example of Scientific Method Generally, you have an observation: Generally, you have an observation: I notice that I tend to remember things better if I hear them rather than see them. I notice that I tend to remember things better if I hear them rather than see them. This leads to a theory: This leads to a theory: People are predominantly auditory learners. People are predominantly auditory learners. Next we operationalize this to a testable hypothesis: Next we operationalize this to a testable hypothesis: People will remember more words presented from a list that is read aloud than from a list on paper. People will remember more words presented from a list that is read aloud than from a list on paper.

OPERATIONAL DEFINITION Defines a variable in terms of the specific procedures used to measure it. Defines a variable in terms of the specific procedures used to measure it. Translates the abstract into something observable and measurable. Translates the abstract into something observable and measurable.

Results Visual Visual M = 15 words Auditory Auditory M = 17 words Is this evidence to support our claim?

Evidence vs. Proof We measure in terms of statistics, which tell us whether a difference is likely to have occurred by chance. We measure in terms of statistics, which tell us whether a difference is likely to have occurred by chance. Even if difference is significant, it does not ‘prove’ a hypothesis. Even if difference is significant, it does not ‘prove’ a hypothesis.

Reporting your findings Psychological research is mostly reported in professional journals. Journal articles have a standard format. This makes them easier to read efficiently. Psychological research is mostly reported in professional journals. Journal articles have a standard format. This makes them easier to read efficiently. You will write your own manuscript in this class, and it will follow this standard format. You will write your own manuscript in this class, and it will follow this standard format.

What is “Peer-Review”? Experts in the author’s field review the theoretical basis, methodology, statistical analyses and interpretation of findings.Experts in the author’s field review the theoretical basis, methodology, statistical analyses and interpretation of findings. The editor and/or reviewers decide whether or not to accept the article for publication.The editor and/or reviewers decide whether or not to accept the article for publication. The intended audience is scholars that have knowledge in or are interested in the field.The intended audience is scholars that have knowledge in or are interested in the field. The article is not written for profit.The article is not written for profit.

How Do You Know if An Article is “Peer-Reviewed?” The article is written by the researchers that conducted the study.The article is written by the researchers that conducted the study. The journal has “instructions to authors” about the submission guidelines and peer-review process.The journal has “instructions to authors” about the submission guidelines and peer-review process. In addition to the title and author information, the article includes abstract, introduction, method, results, discussion and reference sections.In addition to the title and author information, the article includes abstract, introduction, method, results, discussion and reference sections.

Anatomy of a research article Abstract – summary of the research report, approximately 120 words in length. Abstract – summary of the research report, approximately 120 words in length. Introduction – Introduces the research question, reviews past research, states the hypothesis. Introduction – Introduces the research question, reviews past research, states the hypothesis. Method – Describes the research design. These are the specifics of participants and procedures, and any materials used. Method – Describes the research design. These are the specifics of participants and procedures, and any materials used.

Anatomy of a research article Results – This is the statistical part of the article. Reports what was found in terms of the numbers (data). Results – This is the statistical part of the article. Reports what was found in terms of the numbers (data). Discussion – States the conclusions to be drawn from the data. Discusses implications for future research, and possible limitations of the current research. Discussion – States the conclusions to be drawn from the data. Discusses implications for future research, and possible limitations of the current research.