INTRODUCTION

DEFINITION Forensic science is the application of science to criminal and civil laws enforced by police agencies in a criminal justice system.

Forensic Science Timeline Orfila (1814) father of forensic toxicology Bertillon (1879) father of criminal identification (anthropometry) Galton (1892) first to study and classify fingerprints Landsteiner (1901) discovered A,B,O blood types Lattes (1915) developed a simple technique for identifying blood group of dried blood stains

1814 Mathieu Bonaventure Orfila In 1814, published the first scientific study of the effects of poisons on animals Father of forensic toxicology In 1840, gave expert testimony in a French arsenic poisoning murder case (first expert witness)

Sherlock Holmes Fictional character created by Sir Arthur Conan Doyle First novel: A Study in Scarlet Holmes was the first person to apply many of modern forensic principles to solve a crime before any police department used them

Alphonse Bertillon Considered the Father of criminal identification Developed the science of measurement called Anthropometry Based on taking a specific series of body measurements as a means of personal identification

Anthropometry There were eleven measurements: 1. Height 2. Stretch: Length of body from left shoulder to right middle finger when arm is raised 3. Bust: Length of torso from head to seat, taken when seate 4. Length of head: Crown to forehead 5. Width of head: Temple to temple 6. Length of right ear 7. Length of left foot 8. Length of left middle finger 9. Length of left cubit: Elbow to tip of middle finger 10. Width of cheeks 11. Length of left pinky

Francis Galton First definitive study of fingerprints. Developed a method for classifying fingerprints for filing purposes Published the book Finger Prints in 1892 First statistical proof that fingerprints could be used as a unique identification system

Karl Landsteiner Discovered that blood could be grouped into different categories The blood categories are now known as the A, B, AB, and O blood types

Leone Lattes 1915 A professor of Forensic Medicine at University of Turin, Italy. Discovered a method to test for the A,B,O blood groups on dried bloodstains.

Forensic Science Timeline Osborn (1910) published Questioned Documents Goddard (1925) microscopic bullet to firearm comparison McCrone (1946) developed advanced microscopic technology Gross (1893) published Criminal Investigation Locard (1910) founder, director of Institute of Criminalistics at the University of Lyons, France

Hans Gross Public prosecutor and judge in Graz, Austria Advocate for scientific method in forensics Published first book that explained how police could utilize the fields of microscopy, chemistry, physics, mineralogy, zoology, botany, anthropometry and fingerprinting in criminal investigations

Edmond Locard Set up the first “crime lab” in an attic in Lyons, France in 1910 Basic forensic science Locard’s Exchange Principle: Whenever any two objects come in contact with each other there is an exchange of material between the two objects

Albert S. Osborn Developed fundamental principles of document examination Responsible for use of documents as scientific evidence Published the first text: Questioned Documents

Calvin Goddard Forensic Scientist Colonel in U.S. Army Medical doctor Published the first reference on ballistics Professor of political science at Northwestern University

Walter C. McCrone The first recognized world-wide expert in microscopy Started a research foundation devoted to microscopy in 1960 Famous for his forensic analysis of the Shroud of Turin

U.S. Forensic Science Timeline Los Angeles (1923) August Vollmer established the oldest forensic laboratory in the U.S. UC Berkeley (1948) Paul Kirk, first head of the first U.S. school of Criminology FBI (1932) J. Edgar Hoover established the first national forensic science laboratory FBI (1981) established the Forensic Science Research and Training Center

Full-Service Crime Laboratory BASIC SERVICES SUPPLIED: PHYSICAL SCIENCE UNIT BIOLOGY UNIT FIREARMS UNIT DOCUMENT EXAMINATION UNIT PHOTOGRAPHY UNIT

Physical Science Unit Applies principals and techniques of chemistry, physics and geology to the identification and comparison of crime-scene evidence Evidence can be drugs, glass, paint, explosives and soil

Biology Unit Biologists and biochemists identify and perform DNA profiling DNA can be extracted from bloodstains, body fluids, hairs Compare and identify hairs and fibers, wood, plants and other botanical materials

Firearms Unit Examines firearms, discharged bullets, cartridge cases, shotgun shells and ammunition of all types Examine garments and other objects that might be exposed to gunshot residue and target distance Also examine tool marks

Document Examination Unit Studies handwriting, typewriting on questioned documents Determines authenticity and or certifies source of document Analyzes paper, ink, writing depressions, obliterations, erasures, and burned or charged documents

Photography Unit Examines records and records physical evidence Uses digital imaging, infrared, ultraviolet and X-ray photography Make invisible information visible

Optional Crime Laboratory Services THESE SERVICES ARE FOUND IN CENTRALIZED LABORATORIES: TOXICOLOGY UNIT LATENT FINGERPRINT UNIT POLYGRAPH UNIT VOICEPRINT ANALYSIS UNIT CRIME-SCENE INVESTIGATION UNIT

Toxicology Unit Examines body fluids and organs to determine the presence or absence of drugs or poisons

Latent Fingerprint Unit Processes and examines evidence for latent (or non- visible) fingerprints or palm prints

Polygraph Unit Polygraph (lie detector) technology is usually used by criminal investigators Technicians are trained in interrogation techniques

Voiceprint Analysis Believed that speech patterns are unique to an individual Analysis of telephoned threats or taped messages Uses sound spectrograph, that transforms speech into a visual graphic display called a voiceprint

Crime-scene Investigation Unit Specially trained personnel that travel to a crime scene to collect and preserve physical evidence Must be able to distinguish between physical evidence that is valuable and that which is not

Functions of a Forensic Scientist Applies physical and natural science techniques to analyze the many types of physical evidence (Only physical evidence is free of error or bias) MUST subject all physical evidence to principals of Scientific Method Explain the significance of the results in a court of law as an expert witness

Scientific Method Formulate a question worthy of investigation. Formulate a reasonable hypothesis to answer the question. Test the hypothesis through experimentation. Upon validation of the hypothesis, it become suitable as scientific evidence

Role of an Expert Witness An expert witness is an individual whom the court determines possesses knowledge relevant to the trial that is not expected of the average person. The expert witness is called on to evaluate evidence based on specialized training and experience that the court lacks the expertise to do. The expert will then express an opinion as to the significance of the findings. Forensic scientists also participate in training law enforcement personnel in the proper recognition, collection, and preservation of physical evidence.

Admissibility of Evidence The Frye v. United States decision set guidelines for determining the admissibility of scientific evidence into the courtroom. To meet the Frye standard, the evidence in question must be “generally accepted” by the scientific community case of Daubert v. Merrell Dow Pharmaceutical, Inc., the U.S. Supreme Court asserted that the Frye standard is not an absolute requirement for the admissibility of scientific evidence. Trial judges were said to be ultimately responsible as “gatekeepers” for the admissibility and validity of scientific evidence presented in their courts, as well as all expert testimony.

Daubert Evidential Criteria Whether the scientific technique or theory can be tested. Whether the technique has been subject to peer review and publication. The techniques potential rate of error. Existence and maintenance of standards. Whether the scientific theory or method has attracted widespread acceptance within a relevant scientific community.

Special Forensic Services A number of special forensic science services are available to the law enforcement community to augment the services of the crime laboratory. These services include forensic pathology, forensic anthropology, forensic entomology, forensic psychiatry, forensic odontology, computer science, and forensic engineering.

Special Forensic Services Forensic Psychiatry is an area in which the relationship between human behavior and legal proceedings is examined. Forensic Odontology involves using teeth to provide information about the identification of victims when a body is left in an unrecognizable state. Also investigates bite marks. Forensic Engineering is concerned with failure analysis, accident reconstruction, and causes and origins of fires or explosions. Forensic Computer Science involves the examination of digital evidence.