What Are Essays? The Application of Reason

Define Rhetoric “Rhetoric is the art of persuasion. Its goal is to change people’s opinions and influence their actions” (xiii). –Political essays Logical –Opinion essays Ethical Pathetic –Literary or personal essays Logical Ethical

How to Read Essays? Logical –Deduction Major premise (general category) Minor premise (assertion about general category) Conclusion (follows logically from major and minor premises) –Induction “If you look at a lot of specific cases, you can reasonably infer the general principle that governs them all” (xix). Need representative sample for argument to be valid. Ethical –Argument based on the writers self-presentation, moral standing and the audience willingness to accept this as authoritative (xxvi). What authority does the writer claim? Does she know more about the subject than I do? Why should I listen to what she has to say How does the writer’s personal testimony affect her arguments? Is the writer trustworthy? Is she reasonable? Do I like the writer? Would I be happy to meet and talk with her? Pathetic –Argument based on manipulating (for good or ill) the audiences emotions

Example Deductive Argument Major Premise: People who wear glasses are smart. Minor Premise: John wears glasses. Conclusion: John is smart. Conclusion follows from the major and minor premises; therefore, it is considered “valid.”

Argumentative Fallacies Deductive fallacies –Non sequiturs (conclusions do not follow logically from the premises) –Red herring (premises are irrelevant to the conclusion) –False-cause (post hoc, ergo propter hoc) –Begging the question –Either-or

Argumentative Fallacies Inductive fallacies –Hasty generalizations –Anecdotal evidence –False analogy –Special pleading (suppressing counter evidence)

Argumentative Fallacies Pathetic Fallacies –Bandwagon (appeal to desire to fit in [xxx]) –Appeal to Tradition –Appeal to pity