British North America in the years leading to Confederation Setting the Stage

Until the American Revolution, British North America was dominated by: French immigrants (some Acadians) Métis First Nations Traditional systems of French law and land ownership predominated The Catholic Church was the primary religious institution

The American Revolution ( ) After the revolution, approximately 70,000 American loyalists immigrated to Eastern Canada; around half settling in Nova Scotia Results: A large Anglophone population gets intermingled with French Canadians Tensions among these American immigrants with French civil law and French society Arrival of many English-speaking British merchants Who do you believe is the most threatened by these changes?

The Constitution Act of 1791

Divided the province of Quebec into Upper and Lower Canada Upper Canada = followed British laws and was largely English Lower Canada = followed French laws and was largely French Could there be tensions in this system?

The Constitution Act of 1791 Upper CanadaLower Canada Concerned that French Canadians had too much political power Appreciated their allowance to follow British laws and customs Benefited from trade with Britain Concerned that French would be overshadowed by Anglophone power and rights for protestants This act is the foundation of French-Canadian nationalism They are given a ‘homeland’ – Lower Canada

The Constitution Act of 1791 The act, however, did create a political impasse: A governor appointed by Britain was in charge of the colony of Canada; however there was an elected assembly in Canada The elected assembly could block the motions of the government; but the government could do exactly the same With both sides blocking each other’s motions – things ground to a halt

The War of 1812 “The war both Canada and the USA won…” British warships had been seizing American ships and pressing sailors into service, among other grievances Ultimately the United States declared war on Britain (and British North America by extent) Due to the rapid expansion of American settlers, many Native Americans had been displaced; thus their leader, Tecumseh, joined the British

The War of 1812 “I believe that in four weeks from the time a declaration of war is heard on our frontier, the whole of Upper Canada and a part of Lower Canada will be in our power” – John Calhoun, 1812

The War of 1812 Ultimately, the British and “Canadian” forces prevailed The Americans were extremely afraid of Tecumseh and his aboriginal forces British volunteer hit-and-run tactics frustrated the Americans The British volunteers wisely planted themselves in superior geographic locations and strategic points The celebration of the war of 1812 is a significant form of Canadian nationalism

The War of 1812 Results Unified Canada – English and French Canadians fought side-by- side Loyalism – Canada retained its conservative ideology and ties with the British Immigration from the USA drops – immigrants now come from Europe

Rebellions of 1837 Let’s return to the Constitution Act of Traditional British methods of ruling failed in Canada The Political Impasse Several reformers attempted to enact change, notably William Lyon Mackenzie He was a radical though A new election was held and the reformers were voted out The Anglican Church Traditionally, the church was one of the largest land owners Land rent was used as a way to support the church But in Canada, land was cheap Also, many immigrant farmers were not Anglican THUS most farmers DID NOT want to rent from the church

Rebellions of 1837: Mackenzie’s Plot In 1837, Mackenzie plotted to march on Toronto Note: this happens in Upper Canada His forces were surrounded at a tavern and his soldiers fled Mackenzie left Canada and tried to organize an uprising in the USA, but it amounted to nothing This rebellion ended quickly and with minimal bloodshed

Rebellions of 1837: Lower Canada The Lower Canada Rebellion on the other hand was drawn out, and bloody It was fueled by ethnic, cultural, and language disagreements (which are near and dear to many people’s hearts) Focused on: Economic disenfranchisement of the French majority Unfairness of colonial governing – most leaders in Lower Canada were English speaking businessmen

Union of Canadas: Durham Report In response to the rebellions, the Ear of Durham was sent to investigate the colonial grievances He was only in Canada briefly, but gave these recommendations Unite the two Canadas Promote Responsible Government in the United Canada Britain agreed to unite the Canadas, but not to the governmental reforms

Union of Canadas: Durham Report “There can hardly be considered a nationality more destitute…they are a people with no history and literature.” – Lord Durham talking about French Canadians Although Durham had some good ideas, especially responsible government, he held several intolerant views of French Canadians In fact, it has been argued that he wanted to unite Canada to ensure a French-Canadian minority

1841: Act of Union With the Act of Union, Upper and Lower Canada are combined into one territory: Canada An election must be held to determine the governing group And, Canadian reformers are hard at work, striving for Responsible Government

The Reformers: Responsible Government Robert Baldwin From a wealthy family, and a member of the Anglican church Resisted the religious and political oligarchy in Canada He and his father recommended responsible government to Lord Durham Wanted to see unity in Canada

The Reformers: Responsible Government Louis La Fontaine Was a French-Canadian jurist and a statesman After the rebellions of 1837, he advocated political reforms under the Act of Union

Act of Union: An Unlikely Alliance minutes/baldwin-lafontaine In the election of 1841, La Fontaine’s supporters were prevented from votin Baldwin offered La Fontaine a seat in York (Toronto) La Fontaine ran and was elected! Several years later, he returned the favour and Baldwin was elected in French Canada

Act of Union: An Unlikely Alliance Why are these men significant? Showed a close respect for unity between the two major ethnicities in Canada Were the leaders of the first elected government in the united Canada The Baldwin-La Fontaine government fought for: Restoration of the official status of French as a language Responsible Government Double-Majority vote

Act of Union: Key Terms Responsible Government A system of government based on accountability; but in Canada the focus was on the idea of self-government There would be two houses: Lower House – elected, more numerous Upper House – representative of the aristocracy Note: this mimics the British system Double Majority Votes must be passed with at least a 2/3 majority

Act of Union: Final Thoughts The 1841 Act of Union laid the groundwork for Canadian nationalism Foundations of Responsible Government Joint English/French government with Baldwin and La Fontaine However, the Act of Union was not appreciated by Lower Canadians, due to the diminishment of their culture and language