 Mapped the DNA sequence for all our chromosomes  QUESTIONS THAT THIS PROJECT WILL SOME DAY ANSWER!  How are genomes organized?  How is gene expression controlled?  Explain how cellular growth and differentiation are under genetic control?  How does evolution occur?

 only 2%of genome code for proteins  only 2% of genome code for proteins  Genome is made up of 20,000 genes coding for proteins  RNA is used in gene expression  Human genes are spliced many ways to encode for different versions of proteins

 Use the gene discoveries to cure diseases such as cystic fibrosis, muscular dystrophy and colon cancer  Medical treatment and therapies

 Bioinformatics -use of knowledge of biology and computer science and information technology -huge data base that stores, analyzes and integrates genetic info -compares genes in diff. organisms to find gene functions, “gene families”

 Study of an organism’s protein -structure, function, interactions  Use of gel electrophoresis that separates proteins so we can figure out which cells are diseased -

 DNA samples from many genes are organized onto a microscope slide using a radioactive wash of mRNA  This identifies active cancer genes ( glow)

 Treating a genetic disorder by introducing a gene into a cell or by correcting a gene defect in a cell’s genome  Good for treating disorder resulting from deficiency of single enzyme or protein  Obstacles for inserting genes safely and directly into eukaryotic chromosomes

 What is gene therapy?  Introducing normal genes into cells to correct certain disorders  Works best for disorders that result from the loss of a single protein or enzyme Hemophilia Cystic fibrosis

 How does it work?  Isolate the functional gene  Insert the healthy gene into a viral vector  Introduce the recombinant virus into the patient  The healthy copy of the gene will temporarily produce the missing protein

 What are some of the problems with gene therapy?  Short-lived genes ~ requires multiple rounds of gene therapy  Immune response ~ attacks viral particles  Problems with viral particles recovering their ability to cause disease  Not effective with multi-gene disorders  Very expensive!

1) DNA cloning: recombinant DNA using plasmids Been around since 1970’s Uses: Insulin Production Human Growth Hormone Insect resistance in plants Bacteria to clean up oil spills A fermentor used to growrecombinant bacteria.

generates an animal that has the same DNA as another existing animal generates an animal that has the same DNA as another existing animal -take DNA out of existing egg and replace with DNA from an adult cell 1952 – First animal cloned = Northern Leopard Frog

Dolly & her surrogate mother (Born – 1996, Died – 2003) 5 genetically identical cloned pigs in 2000 Prometea - First cloned horse & her DONOR & surrogate mother (2005)

 Why Clone?  Mass produce animals with special qualities that could help in the production & manufacturing of important medical drugs  Pet replacement  Repopulate endangered or extinct animals These goats contain the human gene for a clot- dissolving protein that is produced in their milk.

 Expensive $50,000 (cat) - $150,000 (dog)  Inefficient (>90% attempts fail) 276/277 failed with sheep 840/841 failed with horse (.12% success rate!)  Cloned animals usually have weakened immune systems, more prone to infections

use of embryos for research use of embryos for research -harvest stem cells to be used in research to treat disease EX’s  Modified goats to produce human blood clotting protein in milk  Cloned organs from pigs like hearts, livers, and kidneys

 Production of human embryos for research NOT for cloning a human organism Stop growth after 6 days For stem cells that can be used to study development and treat disease Controversial – “Clump of cells” vs. “Human” More to come on Stem Cells….

Cells in the body that do not have a specific function until the right chemical signals are given to them All 220 types of cells arise from stem cells Divide without limit to repair other cells

 Totipotent-give rise to all the different types of cells (total potential)  Pluripotent-give rise to all cells except for those needed to develop the fetus  Multipotent-give rise to only a small number of different cells

 Early embryonic (8 cell stage)  Blastocyst embryonic (7 day)  Fetal  Umbilical cord  Adult  IPS  Totipotent  Pluripotent  Multipotent  Reverse chemical signals to get embryonic

 Umbilical cord-  Valuable because very young and fewer mutations  Used in blood, immune and bone disorders  Adult Stem Cells  Found in infants and children  Found in all ready developed tissue  Found in minute quantities  May not multiply as well  May contain DNA abnormalities

 Limb amputation  Spinal cord injuries  Burns Burns  Diabetes  Heart disease  Neurological disorders

 What if you cut off part of your thumb?

 How will personal genetic info be used?  Make sure genetic engineering is safe and not misused  Growing GEC that harm the environment  Human embryo cloning in future (gene selection)

 Pharmaceutical products - insulin, growth hormone, interferon, phenylalanie (sweetners)  Vaccines- contain viruses or bacteria that cannot cause disease (physical or chemical alteration), carry identifying protein (rare occasion can cause disease)  Increasing Agriculture yields-genes transferred to produce enzymes that kill hornworms in tomatoes - make plants resistant to disease - make strawberries resistant to frost damage - wheat, cotton, soybeans resistant to herbicides - isolate, clone, transplant genes from N-fixing bacteria to grow plants in nitrogen poor soils (no fertilizer)

 Genetically Modified Foods (engineered) -could contain toxic proteins or substances causing allergies - FDA requires evidence on this - If food contains a new organic cpd., FDA requires approval before product introduced - No labels needed if modified product is the same as nontransgenic crop - Ex. Changed a gene for an enzyme to ripen tomatoes without becoming soft

 Genetically Modified Crops - could spread into wild and wipe out native species - Could spread to other species in neighboring areas (I.e.-rice and lawn grasses exchange genes in their pollen with native plants related to them) - Could cause “superweeds” that could take over large areas of land (hurt native plants)