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 Introduction  Psychology Then and Now  Thinking about Theories and Research  Descriptive Research Methods  The Experimental Method  Research Participants Copyright (c) 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

 Maximize learning with the 5 steps of the SQ3R method. Survey Question Read Recite Review I/Review II Copyright (c) 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

 Establish a quiet place, free of distractions, where you do nothing but study.  Schedule your study time.  Set specific goals each week.  Take an active role in the learning process.  Sleeping immediately after you study will help you retain more of what you have learned. Copyright (c) 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

Psychology

 Psychology is a science. the scientific study of behavior and mental processes uses the scientific method to acquire knowledge scientific method: orderly, systematic procedures researchers follow Copyright (c) 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

 Observe and theorize.  Formulate a hypothesis. specific prediction that can be tested empirically with data  Design the study.  Collect data.  Apply results to the hypothesis. Replication of the study is important. Copyright (c) 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

 Basic Research seeks new knowledge advances general scientific understanding  Applied Research solves practical problems improves the quality of life Copyright (c) 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

 Psychology’s roots can be traced to the beginning of recorded history.  Psychology began as a formal academic discipline in the 1800s. Copyright (c) 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

 Considered the “father” of psychology  Studied cultural and social influences on human thought  Established the first psychological laboratory at the University of Leipzig, Germany, 1879  Developed introspection analysis of basic elements of conscious mental experience Copyright (c) 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

 Edward Bradford Titchener (1867–1927) Studied under Wundt Established a psychological laboratory at Cornell University Named his school of thought “structuralism”  Structuralism Aimed at analyzing the basic elements, or structure, of conscious mental experience Criticized for its primary method, introspection  considered not objective Established psychology as a science Copyright (c) 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

 Functionalism how humans and animals use mental processes to adapt to their environment  William James (1842–1910) main advocate of functionalism clarified definition of mental processes  fluid  have continuity  not the rigid, fixed structures suggested by the Structuralists Copyright (c) 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

 Broadened the scope of psychology study of behavior as well as mental processes  Allowed for the study of children, animals, and the mentally impaired  Focused on more practical uses of psychology encouraged study of educational practices, individual differences, and adaptation in the workplace Copyright (c) 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

 Current Trends More women than men obtain degrees in psychology. Minority representation is growing.  A gap between the proportion of minorities in the US population and the proportion represented in professional psychology persists.  The APA has established a program encouraging minority enrollment in graduate programs in psychology. Copyright (c) 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

 Christine Ladd-Franklin completed her PhD in the mid-1880s at Johns Hopkins  did not receive her degree until 1926 formulated a theory of color vision  Mary Whiton Calkins completed the requirements for a doctorate at Harvard  denied degree due to being female established psychology laboratory at Wellesley College developed paired associates test Copyright (c) 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

 Margaret Floy Washburn received PhD from Cornell University wrote influential books  The Animal Mind (1908)  Movement and Mental Imagery (1916)  Francis Cecil Sumner first African American to earn a PhD in psychology, 1920 chaired psychology department at Howard University Copyright (c) 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

 Albert Sidney Beckham established the first psychological laboratory at a black institution of higher learning, Howard University conducted important studies on intelligence and how it related to occupational fields  Kenneth Clark received national recognition for writings on the harmful effects of racial segregation His writing impacted the Supreme Court rulings that declared national segregation unconstitutional. Copyright (c) 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

 Jorge Sanchez Hispanic-American psychologist studied bias in intelligence testing during the 1930s  Cultural and language differences affect the performance of Hispanic students taking American IQ tests. Copyright (c) 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

 Behaviorism  Psychoanalytic Psychology  Humanistic Psychology  Cognitive Psychology  Evolutionary Psychology  Biological Psychology  The Sociocultural Approach Copyright (c) 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

 Named by John Watson  Redefined psychology as “the science of behavior”  Observable, measurable behavior is the only appropriate subject matter.  Environment is the key determinant of behavior.  Most influential school of thought until the 1960s Copyright (c) 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

 Skinner’s Key Points Mind, consciousness, and feelings are neither objective nor measurable.  not appropriate subject matter for psychology operant conditioning  emphasizes the importance of reinforcement in learning, shaping, and maintaining behavior Behavior that is reinforced is likely to be repeated. Copyright (c) 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

 Personality theory developed by Sigmund Freud  Psychoanalysis treatment method for psychological disorders  Psychoanalytic Theory individual’s thoughts, feelings, and behavior as determined primarily by the unconscious Copyright (c) 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

 Freud’s Followers Jung, Adler, and Horney disagreed with Freud’s emphasis on sexual and aggressive impulses referred to as “neoanalysts” Copyright (c) 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

 Humans have the capacity for choice, growth, and psychological health.  Positive View of Human Nature People are innately good. Humans possess free will. Copyright (c) 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

Key Contributors:  Abraham Maslow theory of motivation emphasizes hierarchy of needs  Carl Rogers client-centered therapy  Client directs a discussion on his or her own view of the problem.  The therapist’s analysis is less the focus of therapy. Copyright (c) 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

 Grew in response to strict behaviorism  Saw humans as: Not passive recipients pushed and pulled by environmental forces Active participants who seek out experiences, who alter and shape their experiences Using mental processes to transform information in the course of their own cognitive development Copyright (c) 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

 Ideas grew from gestalt psychology and information-processing theory. Gestalt Psychology  The mind interprets events rather than simply reacting to them. Information-Processing Theory  The brain processes information in sequential steps.  similar to a computer’s serial processing Copyright (c) 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

 Investigates: Human behaviors necessary for survival How behaviors adapted in the face of environmental pressures over the course of evolution  Draws heavily on Darwin’s theory Copyright (c) 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

 Often confused with evolutionary psychology Evolutionary psychology focuses on universal traits. Biological psychology focuses on individual differences.  Studies structures of the brain, neurotransmitters, hormones, effects of heredity  Biological psychologists often work in neuroscience. Neuroscience includes biology, biochemistry, and medicine in understanding functions of the nervous system. Copyright (c) 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

 How background and cultural experiences affect behavior and mental processes  Important to understand these factors when interpreting the behavior of others  Often studied within the broader context of a systems perspective Copyright (c) 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

 Many psychologists take an eclectic position. combination of approaches to explain a particular behavior  Adopting multiple perspectives allows psychologists to: Devise more complex theories and studies Improve treatment strategies Copyright (c) 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

 Clinical Psychologists diagnose and treat mental and behavioral disorders  School Psychologists diagnose and treat learning and behavioral problems interfering with learning  Forensic Psychologists work with issues involving psychology and law  Counseling Psychologists work with adjustment problem that are generally less severe than those handled by clinical psychologists Copyright (c) 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

 Physiological Psychologists study the relationship between physiological processes and behavior  Experimental Psychologists conduct research in memory, sensation, perception, motivation, and emotion  Developmental Psychologists study change throughout the life span  Educational Psychologists specialize in the study of teaching and learning Copyright (c) 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

 Social Psychologists investigate individual feelings, thoughts, and behavior in a social setting—in the presence of others  Industrial/Organizational (I/O) Psychologists study the relationships between people and their work environments Copyright (c) 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

 These methods yield descriptions of behavior and include: Naturalistic and laboratory observation Survey Research Case study Correlational method Experimental method Copyright (c) 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

 Naturalistic Observation observation of behavior in its natural setting no attempt to influence behavior  Laboratory Observation studies behavior in a laboratory setting allows more control and more precise measurement of responses Copyright (c) 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

 Interviews and/or questionnaires gather information about the attitudes, beliefs, or behaviors of a group of people  Studies a representative sample mirrors the population of interest Copyright (c) 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

 Studies a single individual or small number of persons in depth  Advantages appropriate for studying rare psychological disorders or brain damage  Disadvantages cannot identify the cause of behavior potential for bias results can lack generalizability Copyright (c) 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

 Measures degree of a relationship between two characteristics, events, or behaviors  Three types: Negative correlation Positive correlation No correlation Copyright (c) 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

 Advantages Information about one variable can be used to predict the other.  Disadvantages  cannot be used to support the conclusion that one variable causes the other Copyright (c) 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

 Can identify cause-effect relationships  Designed to assess causal hypotheses predictions about a cause–effect relationship between two or more variables Copyright (c) 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

 Independent Variable a factor or condition deliberately manipulated to determine whether it causes any change in another behavior or condition  Dependent Variable a factor or condition measured to determine the impact of the experimental manipulation Copyright (c) 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

 Experimental Group exposed to the independent variable  Control Group exposed to the same experimental environment but not given the independent variable  Comparing Experimental and Control Groups Researchers judge effects of the independent variable compared to outcomes that occur naturally. Copyright (c) 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

 Confounding Variables factors other than the independent variable that can affect results  Selection Bias assignment to groups such that systematic differences between groups are present at the beginning of an experiment can be controlled by random assignment Copyright (c) 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

 Placebo Effect response to a treatment caused by a person’s expectations, not the treatment  Experimenter Bias A researcher’s expectations influence the experiment’s results.  These effects can be controlled by using the double-blind technique. Neither the experimenter nor participants know who is in the experimental or control groups. Copyright (c) 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

 APA requires: Researchers must ensure that participants are representative of the population that study’s results will be generalized. Research must include detailed information about participant characteristics.

 Whites Overrepresented Subjects are often drawn from college populations more populated with whites.  Failure to Include Socioeconomic Status lacking in much of the research literature comparing white Americans and African Americans  Gender Bias Researchers tend to specify the gender of the sample clearly when subjects are female, but less often when the sample is exclusively male.  Ageism often apparent in the language used in psychological research with older adults Copyright (c) 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

 Legality Research must conform to applicable federal, state, and local laws and regulations.  Institutional Approval Researchers must obtain approval from the institution involved in the study.  Informed Consent Participants must be informed of the purpose of the study and its potential for harming them.  Deception Deception is ethical when it is necessary to acquire data.  Debriefing Participants are informed about any deception when the study is complete. Copyright (c) 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

 Clients, Patients, Students, and Subordinates Participants under another’s authority (i.e., employees) must be assured that participation will not damage the participants.  Payment for Participation Participants can be paid. must be informed about what is expected in return for payment  Publication Report findings in an appropriate forum, such as a scientific journal. Copyright (c) 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

 Legality Animal research must follow all relevant federal, state, and local laws.  Supervision by Experienced Personnel Use of animals must be supervised by people trained in animal care.  Minimization of Discomfort Researchers are ethically bound to minimize any discomfort to research animals. Copyright (c) 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved