Understanding Sociology & Sociological Research Chapters 1 & 2

A Look Ahead How did sociology develop? How does it differ from other social sciences? Who are the pioneers and what are their theoretical perspectives? How does sociology help us develop a sociological imagination?

What is Sociology? Sociology: Scientific study of social behavior and human groups Focus on: How relationships influence people’s attitudes and behavior How societies develop and change

Sociological Perspective Special vision Seeing the general in the particular Seeing the strange in the familiar Seeing individuality in social context

Benefits of the Sociological Perspective Question “common sense” Assess opportunities and constraints Empowerment Living in a diverse world

The Sociological Imagination C. Wright Mills’ sociological imagination: An awareness of the relationship between an individual and the wider society Ability to view society as an outsider would

Sociology and the Social Sciences Study influence society has on people’s attitudes and behavior Seek to understand ways in which people interact and shape society Examine social relationships scientifically

Sociology and the Social Sciences Science: Body of knowledge obtained by methods based on systematic observation Natural science: Study of physical features of nature and the ways they interact and change Social science: Study of social features of humans and the ways they interact and change

Sociology and Common Sense Sociologists do not accept something as fact because “everyone knows it” Each piece of information must be tested, recorded, and analyzed

Key concepts in Sociology Skepticism Uncovering “inconvenient facts”- Weber Method of organizing perspectives Objectivity Ethics Critical thinking

The Development of Sociology Industrial Revolution Growth of cities Pull of factories Push of enclosure Political Change Pursuit of self-interest

Early Thinkers Auguste Comte (1798–1857) Harriet Martineau (1802–1876) Systematic investigation of behavior Coined term “sociology” Harriet Martineau (1802–1876) Studied social behavior in Britain and U.S. Emphasized impact of economy, law, trade, health, and population on social problems Herbert Spencer (1820–1903) Studied “evolutionary” change in society

Émile Durkheim (1858–1917) Behavior must be understood within larger social context Anomie: Loss of direction felt in a society when social control of individual behavior becomes ineffective

Max Weber (1864–1920) To comprehend behavior, one must learn subjective meaning people attach to actions Verstehen: understanding; insight Ideal type: Construct for evaluating specific cases

Karl Marx (1818–1883) Society divided between two classes that clash in pursuit of interests The Communist Manifesto Working class should overthrow existing class system Emphasized group identification and associations that influence one’s place in society

Modern Developments W. E. B. Du Bois (1868-1963) Black sociologists assisted struggle for racially egalitarian society Knowledge essential in combating prejudice Double consciousness: Division of individual’s identity into two or more social realities

Twentieth-Century Developments Charles Horton Cooley (1864–1929) Used sociological perspective to examine face-to-face groups Jane Addams (1860–1935) Combined intellectual inquiry, social service work, and political activism Co-founded Hull House

Modern Developments Pierre Bourdieu (1930–2002) Capital sustains individuals and families from one generation to the next Cultural capital: noneconomic goods reflected in knowledge of language and arts Social capital: collective benefit of social networks

Why Theory? Allows for full exploration of an issue or problem 3 sociological theoretical paradigms Sets of assumptions that guide thinking and research

Functionalist Perspective Emphasizes the way parts of a society are structured to maintain its stability Views society as vast network of connected parts Each helps maintain the system as a whole

Functionalist Perspective Manifest functions: Open, stated, conscious functions; intended and recognized consequences of an aspect of society Latent functions: Unconscious or unintended functions; may reflect hidden purposes Dysfunctions: Elements or processes of society that may disrupt a social system or reduce its stability

Conflict Perspective Assumes social behavior best understood in terms of conflict or tension between competing groups Conflict theorists interested in how institutions may help maintain privileges of some groups and keep others subservient

Conflict Perspective The Feminist view Sees inequality in gender as central to all behavior and organization Often allied with conflict theory Broadened social behavior by extending analysis beyond male point of view

Interactionist Perspective Generalizes about everyday forms of social interaction to explain society as a whole Humans viewed as living in a world of meaningful objects Nonverbal communication: Includes gestures, facial expressions, and postures

What is the Scientific Method? Systematic, organized series of steps that ensures maximum objectivity and consistency in researching a problem Defining the problem Reviewing the literature Formulating the hypothesis Selecting the research design and collecting and analyzing data Developing the conclusion

Scientific Method Defining the Problem Reviewing the Literature Operational definition: Explanation of an abstract concept that is specific enough to allow researchers to assess the concept Reviewing the Literature Refines problem under study

Scientific Method Formulating the Hypothesis Hypothesis: Speculative statement about the relationship between two or more factors known as variables Variable: Measurable trait or characteristic subject to change under different conditions Independent variable: Variable hypothesized to cause or influence another Dependent variable: Action depends on influence of the independent variable

Scientific Method Formulating the Hypothesis (continued) Causal logic: Involves relationships between a condition or variable and a particular consequence, with one event leading to the other Correlation: Exists when change in one variable coincides with change in another Correlation does not necessarily indicate causation

Figure 2-3: Causal Logic – page 36 29

Major Research Designs Research design: Detailed plan or method for obtaining data scientifically Surveys Observation Experiments Existing sources

Surveys Study that provides sociologists with information about how people act or think Interview: Researcher obtains information through face-to-face or telephone questioning Questionnaire: Researcher uses printed or written form to obtain information from respondent

Ethnography Collecting information through direct participation and/or by closely watching a group or community Ethnography: Efforts to describe an entire social setting through extended systematic observation Observation: Sociologist joins group to get accurate sense of how it operates

Surveys Quantitative research: Collects and reports data primarily in numerical form Qualitative research: Relies on what is seen in field and naturalistic settings; often focuses on small groups and communities

Experiments Experiment: Artificially created situation that allows researcher to manipulate variables Experimental group: Exposed to independent variable Control group: Not exposed to independent variable Hawthorne Effect: Unintended influence of observers or experiments on subjects

Use of Existing Sources Secondary analysis: Research techniques that make use of previously collected and publicly accessible information and data Content analysis: Systematic coding and objective recording of data, guided by some rationale

Scientific Method Collecting and Analyzing Data Selecting the Sample Sample: Selection from a larger population that is statistically typical of that population Random sample: When every member of a population has the same chance of being selected Snowball samples (Convenience Samples): participants recruited through word of mouth or by posting notices on the Internet

Scientific Method Collecting and Analyzing Data Ensuring Validity and Reliability Validity: Degree to which the measure reflects the phenomenon being studied Reliability: Extent to which the measure provides consistent results

Scientific Method Developing the Conclusion Supporting the Hypothesis Sociological studies do not always generate data that support original hypothesis Controlling for other factors Control variable: factor held constant to test the impact of the independent variable

Figure 2-1: The Scientific Method – page 33 39

Using Statistics Percentage: Shows portion of 100 Mean: Average; sum of a series of values divided by the number of values Mode: Single most common value in a series of values Median: Midpoint that divides a series of values into two groups with equal numbers of values

Figure 2-2: Educational Level and Household Income in the United States – page 35 Source: 2010 American Community Survey in Bureau of the Census 2011b:Table S1903; 2011a:Table 233. 41

Figure 2-4: Impact of a College Education on Income – page 37 Source: Author’s analysis of DeNavas-Walt et al. 2011, Detailed Table PINC-03. 42

Ethics of Research Code of Ethics (ASA, 1997) Maintain objectivity and integrity in research Respect subjects’ right to privacy and dignity Protect subjects from personal harm Preserve confidentiality Seek informed consent Acknowledge collaboration and assistance Disclose sources of financial support