Seven Dwarfs Can you name the seven dwarfs? (In your notebook, write down all the responses that come to mind in the order in which they occur… KEEP INFO TO YOURSELF!!!)

Seven Dwarfs From the following list, pick out the names of the seven dwarfs: Grouchy Shy Teach Shorty Gabby Droopy Dopey Nifty Fearful Sniffy Wishful Happy  Sleepy Puffy Dumpy Doc  Smiley Sneezy Lazy Wheezy Jumpy Pop Grumpy Stubby Hopeful Bashful Cheerful

Seven Dwarfs Here is the correct list: Sleepy, Dopey, Grumpy, Sneezy, Happy, Doc, & Bashful

Forgetting Forgetting can occur at any memory stage How difficult was this task? Why? Have you ever seen the movie? Encoding Failure = we failed to get the information into our memory – cannot attend to more than a few things at a time. How long has it been since you seen the movie? Decay Theory = gradual fading of the physical memory trace (when new memory forms, there is a change in brain structure or chemistry. If unused, normal brain metabolic processes erode memory trace. Did you have the feeling that you knew the name but could not retrieve it? Retrieval Failure = forgetting often results from an inability to get the memory out  TOT (tip of the tongue) - Subjective sense of being on the verge of remembering a piece of information but retrieval process does not produce a complete response Forgetting can occur at any memory stage

Forgetting: Encoding Failure Encoding Failure = we failed to encode the information – cannot attend to more than a few things at a time. Encoding X Long-term memory Encoding failure leads to forgetting Short-term

Forgetting: Encoding Failure Examples of encoding failure… Selective Attention (Everyday Questions pgs 321-322 in course packet) Next-in-line Effect Ways to promote encoding… Spacing Effect Overlearning Ebbinghaus’ list of nonsense syllables and forgetting curve Organization of information Chunking Hierarchies Self-reference Effect Mnemonic Devices Loci Method Peg Word Method

Which is the real penny? (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) (g) (h) (i) (j) (k) (l) (m) (n) (o) key words: forgetting; encoding Even though you’ve seen thousands of pennies, you’ve probably never looked at one closely to encode specific features

Rehearsal In relearning, the individual shows how much time (or effort) is saved when learning material for the second time. List Jet Dagger Tree Kite Silk Frog Ring List Jet Dagger Tree Kite Silk Frog Ring Original Trials Relearning Trials 1 day later Saving X 100 Relearning Trials 10 5 X 100 10 It took 10 trials to learn this list It took 5 trials to learn the list 50%

Forgetting: Decay Theory Decay Theory = gradual fading of the physical memory trace (when new memory forms, there is a change in brain structure or chemistry). If unused, normal brain metabolic processes erode memory trace. Long-term potentiation – increase in a synapse’s firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation, such as a result of learning or retrieving memories. The sending neuron now needs less prompting to release its neurotransmitter, and receptor sites may increase. If memory trace is not activated there will be a decrease in LTP and an eventual eroding of actual memory trace

Alzheimer’s Disease One of the most devastating forms of memory loss is Alzheimer's disease, an irreversible and progressive brain disorder that slowly destroys memory and thinking skills. Today, Alzheimer's is the second most-feared illness in America, following cancer, and may affect as many as five million Americans. It is the seventh-leading cause of death in the United States.  Has no current cure. Inside the Brain http://www.alz.org/alzheimers_disease_4719.asp http://www.alzheimers.org/rmedia/adanimation.htm Alzheimer's destroys brain cells.  Two abnormal structures called plaques and tangles are prime suspects in damaging and killing nerve cells. Plaques build up between nerve cells. They contain deposits of a protein fragment called beta-amyloid (BAY-tuh AM-uh-loyd). Tangles are twisted fibers of another protein called tau (rhymes with “wow”) and form inside dying cells. Most experts believe they somehow block communication among nerve cells and disrupt activities that cells need to survive.

Alzheimer’s Disease

Alzheimer’s Disease

Alzheimer’s Disease

Forgetting: Retrieval Failure Retrieval Failure = the inability to access stored information in LTM If you experienced retrieval failure, what were you focusing on to try to retrieve the info? The syllables? (6 of the 7 dwarfs have 2 syllables); What letter it started with? (s and d occur most frequently); The meaning or connotation the name had? (most names are vivid adjectives) TOT (tip of the tongue) - Subjective sense of being on the verge of remembering a piece of information but retrieval process does not produce a complete response Encoding Long-term memory Short-term X Retrieval Retrieval failure leads to forgetting

connected associations Seven Dwarfs Did you have a run or pattern based off the organizational cues? For example: Did you recall words similar in meaning to the actual dwarfs? (Lazy, Clumsy, Droopy, or Grouchy?) Spreading Activation Model - memories stored as a web of associations. To retrieve a specific memory, you first need to identify one of the strands that leads to it. Often our associations are activated or primed without our awareness. Sleepy Web of Associations Weary Priming Unconscious activation of a connected associations Links between concepts common properties provide basis for mental link Shorter path between two concepts = stronger association in memory Activation of a concept starts decremental spread of activity to nearby concepts Also known as the spreading-activation model Tired Dozy Drowsy

Conceptual Priming Look at the picture. Then when the instructor says a word, write it down. Key words: long-term memory; implicit memory; non-declarative memory; priming; conceptual priming DEMO: SAY THE WORD “HARE’ TO YOUR CLASS AND ASK THEM TO WRITE IT DOWN. MANY WILL WRITE “HARE” ALTHOUGH “HAIR” IS MORE COMMON. Why is the uncommon response produced? PRIMING of a sound by a picture.

Perceptual priming Can you identify the fragmented stimulus below? Key words: long-term memory; implicit memory; non-declarative memory; priming; perceptual priming

Perceptual priming What if you were shown the following slide earlier in the lecture? Key words: long-term memory; implicit memory; non-declarative memory; priming; perceptual priming

Forgetting: Retrieval Failure Were you better at Recall or Recognition? Recall Retrieval of information previously learned w/out assistance Recognition Identification of items previously learned VS. Retrieval Cues – a clue, prompt or hint that can help us to remember Ways to promote retrieval… Encoding Specificity Principle – cues used during initial learning are more effective during later retrieval than novel cues  based on spreading activation model + priming Internal Cues State Dependent Memory Mood Congruence Memory External Cues Context Effects   Déjà vu (pg297 of packet) Recall = involves a two-step process: generation of possible targets and identification of genuine ones. Retrieving information into conscious awareness without any external assistance Recognition = possible targets are already complete and one only has to decide if the information is correct. Correctly identifying information as being previously encountered Déjà vu - Cues from the current situation may unconsciously trigger retrieval of an earlier similar experience.

Memory increases if mood at recall is the same as retrieval Retrieval Cues Internal, physiological factors (mood, emotions, stress, etc) If happy when learned info  recall info more easily when happy; alert and hyper when learned info  recall info more easily when alert and hyper, etc Memories are mood-congruent = remembering experiences that are consistent with one’s current good or bad mood. EX: depressed people more likely to recall parents as rejecting and punitive. State-Dependent Memory increases if mood at recall is the same as retrieval

Memory increases if recall occurs in the same context as encoding. Retrieval Cues Context Effect Memory increases if recall occurs in the same context as encoding. External, environmental factors (same room, same time of day, listening to music, eating, etc Better recall if tested in classroom where you initially learned info than if moved to a new classroom If learning room smells of chocolate or mothballs, people will recall more info if tested in room with the same smell compared to different smell or no smell at all Learn at 3pm  perform better at 3 pm than 9 pm

Interference Past Present Present Past Interference - learning some items may interfere with learning other items. One memory competing with or replacing another memory Proactive Interference = Something learned earlier disrupts something learned later. Past Present EX: Memories of where you parked your car on campus the past week interferes with ability find car today Retroactive Interference = Something learned later disrupts something learned earlier. Present Past EX: When new phone number interferes with ability to remember old phone number

Previously learned language interferes with ability to remember newly learned language Learning a new language interferes with ability to remember old language

Retroactive Interference Sleep prevents retroactive interference. Therefore, it leads to better recall.

Serial Position Effect Primacy Effect = enhanced ability to recall items from the beginning of the list Recency Effect = enhanced ability to recall items from the end of the list

Reconstructing What We’ve Forgotten Recall not an exact replica of original events; recall is a construction built and rebuilt from various sources Misinformation Effect – distortion of memory by incorporating misleading information into one’s memory of an event: photos – media coverage, our schemas, retellings, questioning – interrogation As a memory fades with time following an event, the injection of misinformation becomes easier Loftus’ Experiments: two cars hit or smashed each other  type of questioning influences whether witnesses believe they saw broken glass or not Imagination Inflation – repeatedly imagining nonexistent actions and events can create false memories Source Amnesia – attributing an event to the wrong source an event that we have experienced, heard about, read about, or imagined. EX: Have a dream and think it really happened to us. Accident Leading question: “About how fast were the cars going When they smashed into each other?” Memory construction A week later they were asked: Was there any broken glass? Group B (smashed into) reported more broken glass than Group A (hit).

Reconstructing What We’ve Forgotten Ways to Prevent Misinformation Ask less suggestive questions. Ask open-ended questions in which the other person has to provide the DETAILS. Involved adults should not discuss the issue with the other person prior to questioning Memories before the age of 3 (infantile amnesia) or recovered under hypnosis (most do not believe in repression) = UNRELIABLE

Motivated Forgetting Motivated Forgetting: People unknowingly revise their memories. Are memories of abuse repressed or constructed? Many psychotherapists believe that early childhood sexual abuse results in repressed memories. Repression: A defense mechanism that banishes anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories from consciousness. However, other psychologists question such beliefs and think that such memories may be constructed. Sigmund Freud

Improving Memory Study repeatedly to boost long-term recall. Spend more time rehearsing or actively thinking about the material. Make material personally meaningful. Use mnemonic devices: associate with peg words — something already stored make up a story chunk — acronyms Preview Question 12: How can an understanding of memory contribute to more effective study techniques?

Improving Memory Activate retrieval cues — mentally recreate the situation and mood. Recall events while they are fresh — before you encounter misinformation. Minimize interference: Test your own knowledge. Rehearse and then determine what you do not yet know.