THE CONQUEST OF THE AMAZON Osvaldo Jordan October 6, 2008

EARLY HISTORY The Amazon was always a disputed frontier after the imaginary line drawn by the Treaty of Tordesillas (1494). During the colonial period, both Spanish Peru and Portuguese Brazil sent entradas and missionaries to the Amazon Basin. In the XIX and early XX century, they were followed by serengueiros (rubber tappers) from the coastal areas.

MODERN HISTORY The Rubber Boom of the late XIX century integrated the Amazon into the global economy, and secured Brazilian sovereignty. However, after the fall of rubber prices, the region remained a frontier until the mid-XX century. The creation of Brasilia by Kubitschek signaled the advance of an asserting Brazilian state over the Amazon.

MODERN HISTORY The Military became obsessed with the Conquest of the Amazon, which became a question of national security (or according to Zibechi (2006) imperial expansion?). They borrowed millions of dollars to construct the Trans-Amazonian Highway, as well as several gigantic hydroelectric dams. They also offered tax subsidies for cattle ranchers, and promoted land speculation. The Lost Decade and the democratic transition brought about a respite to the Amazon, yet colonization has continued aggressively until today.

Who is to blame for the destruction of the Amazon? According to Fearnside, the poor are responsible for only 30% of deforestation, yet they utilize the land more intensively. He accuses cattle ranchers of promoting “An industry of resettlement”. Until today, the main threats remain: -Cattle Ranches. -Soy Bean Plantations. -Logging. -Gold Mining. According to Fearnside, the construction of infrastructure, like highways, waterways, and pipelines will accelerate the colonization of the Amazon.

Who are the defenders of the Amazon? Indigenous Peoples. Rubber Tappers. Environmentalists. And what about the position of the Brazilian Government? Should Amazon conservation be considered an international issue?

INDIGENOUS PEOPLES 200,000 indigenous peoples (< 1% of the national population) currently occupy 400 indigenous lands, representing 21% of the Brazilian Amazon. The have resisted colonization since the arrival of the Europeans, and have become increasingly assertive in the last two decades. Traditionally, indigenous peoples have maintained common property resource management regimes.

RUBBER TAPPERS Their forbearers arrived during the Rubber Boom of the XIX and early XX century, and they have become part of the native population. Rubber tapping and other extractive industries, like Brazil Nut and medicinal plants, require the continued conservation of the tropical forest. After the 1970s, rubber tappers also became victims of cattle ranchers and other colonizers. After the assassination of Chico Mendes (1988), the Brazilian Government created Extractive Reserves that today preserve the forests and unique lifestyle of the seringueiros.

ENVIRONMENTALISTS The environmental movement gathered strength after the 1970s, and was always opposed to the systematic destruction of the Amazon. Environmental lobbying reached highest success with the celebration of the Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro in This resulted in two important international agreements: The Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), and the Framework Convention on Climate Change (FCCC), from which the Kyoto Protocol (1997) was derived.

ENVIRONMENTALISTS Today environmentalist are advocating for the identification, valuation, and payment of environmental services, such as biodiversity maintenance, carbon storage, and water cycling. Carbon trading now offers the possibility of generating substantial revenues for conservation, especially through the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) of the Kyoto Protocol and the new REDD that will be discussed in Copenhagen this year.

THE UNLIKELY ALLIANCE In 1992, the Rio Summit coincided with the Fifth Centennial of the European Conquest of The Americas, marking the beginning of an enduring alliance between indigenous peoples and environmental activists: Schwartzman and Zimmermann discuss the case studies of the Kayapo and the Xinguanos in the Xingu River Basin.

THE CLOSING OF A FRONTIER Unfortunately, Amazon conservation remains a violently contested issue. In 2005, American-born Sister Dorothy Stang, was assasinated for defending the rights of the poor and the environment in the Brazilian State of Para. Increasing Drug Trafficking has also raised questions about the capacity of the Brazilian State to administer the Amazon and about the necessity to internationalize this world heritage.

THE WAR OVER THE AMAZON In the 1990s and 2000s, indigenous protests in Ecuador and Bolivia toppled governments and raised awareness about the impacts of foreign investment on natural resource conservation. In neighboring Colombia, irregular forces have massacred and enslaved indigenous peoples repeatedly both to defend and to fight against international investment. In Brazil, armed violence and the enslavement of indigenous peoples has continued despite government efforts for land reform and criminal justice.

THE WAR OVER THE AMAZON In May 2008, in an undisclosed location along the border between Brazil and Peru, images of uncontacted tribal people were shown to the world to raise awareness about the impacts of deforestation (news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/ stm). On World Environment Day 2009, indigenous protests against new legislation for the implementation of the FTA with the United States were violently repressed by the Peruvian military (news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/ stm). In October 2009, at least two Shuar natives died in violent clashes with the Ecuadorean Military about new water and mining legislation ( -LT-Ecuador-Indian-Protest.html).