Motives and Mechanisms

Theories include causal relations and causal mechanisms. Mechanisms are an essential component of theory.

Mechanisms Statements of causal relations tell us that two factors are related Mechanisms tell us WHY Describe the process through which X produces Y

Mechanisms are general For example: Self-fulfilling prophecy (Merton) Network diffusion (Coleman) Threshold theory of collective action (Granovetter) These theories explain different phenomena, but rely on the same MECHANISM (Hedstrom & Swedberg 1998 Social Mechanisms: An Analytical Approach to Social Theory)

Mechanisms usually refer to lower-level processes Causal mechanisms usually explain higher-level phenomena by referring to events at a lower level. So, mechanisms explaining social behavior usually refer to individuals Social theories require understanding why individuals act as they do

The challenge Typically, we cannot observe these mechanisms While action is observable, motives are not

What to do? Make simplifying assumptions These assumptions don’t describe the full complexity of human beings, but are useful for developing social theories Common assumptions Individuals will maximize Wealth Power Prestige

Macro-level cause Individual internal states Situational mechanisms Transformational mechanisms Types of Mechanisms Behavioral mechanisms Macro-level Outcome Individual action

Situational mechanisms Explain how macro-level phenomena affects individuals Individualism Lack of Purpose Example. Durkheim: Integration  Lack of purpose Individual Suicide Suicide Rates

Transformational mechanisms Explain how individual actions combine to produce group-level phenomena Example. Individual Suicide  Suicide Rates Protestantism Individualism Individual Suicide Suicide Rates

Transformational Mechanisms Aggregation Strategic Interaction (game theory)

Behavioral mechanisms How individual internal states affect individual behavior In other words, how people act given their motives and situations Protestantism Individualism Individual Suicide Suicide Rates Example: Individualism  Individual Suicide

Behavioral assumptions An important source of causal mechanisms in sociology

Max Weber ( )

Max Weber ( ) on ‘orientations to action’ I. Consequentialist Instrumental action (zweckrationalitat) People choose a course of action that they believe is the most effective to attain their most preferred end (or goal) Works for any end Has to do with the ‘rationality’ of the means, not the ‘rationality’ of the ends

‘orientations to action’ cont’d II. Non-consequentialist action Value-rational (wertrational) Action motivated because of Duty, right, or its own sake Sir Thomas More. “A Man for All Seasons” Affective Action motivated by emotion (affect) Crimes of passion Reflex Habit

Nota Bene Non-consequentialist action occurs regardless of its consequences for the individual’s welfare

Typical asumptions Typical sociologist assumption: People are value rational People have been socialized Typical economist assumption People are instrumentally rational

A caveat Neither view is completely accurate

Motives differ Fehr & Gintis report evidence suggesting that people vary Some are instrumentally rational (self- interested) Others are more value rational (“strong- reciprocators”)

Are we hard-wired? While sociologists have traditionally emphasized socialization as a source of values, work by evolutionary psychologists suggests that evolution is a factor Evolution produces widely shared human values

Behavioral assumptions and social order Social order is high to the degree that individuals obey rules and laws If people are instrumentalists with selfish goals, they may undermine social order criminal behavior If people are value-rational who always want to ‘do the right thing,’ they will tend to uphold the social order (at least in their own societies) September 11

Analyzing Theory Identify Cause Outcome Mechanisms

Applying Theory Ask: What are the empirical implications?