Academic Writing for Postgraduate Study Caroline Malthus Te Puna Ako Learning Centre © Unitec New Zealand1

Introductions your name? What programme are you studying? Your comments on the text or image? Slides will be available on Te Puna Ako Learning Centre Moodle your name? What programme are you studying? Your comments on the text or image? Slides will be available on Te Puna Ako Learning Centre Moodle

Introductions your name? What programme are you studying? One aspect you hope to cover today your name? What programme are you studying? One aspect you hope to cover today © Unitec New Zealand3 Slides will be available on Te Puna Ako Learning Centre Moodle

This session… The expectations of Unitec lecturers Some key features of academic writing The differences between descriptive writing and critical analysis The processes of paraphrasing, citation and referencing The expectations of Unitec lecturers Some key features of academic writing The differences between descriptive writing and critical analysis The processes of paraphrasing, citation and referencing © Unitec New Zealand4

What’s an assignment? 88--: Theories of L & T Critique of Literature Written critical analysis with references Evaluation of arguments Online discussion explain and evaluate a concept apply to teaching Critique of Literature Written critical analysis with references Evaluation of arguments Online discussion explain and evaluate a concept apply to teaching 88--: Business Seminar presentation on theory, issues and innovations spoken critical analysis with references Reflective report Part 1: thematic literature review Part 2: practical application and evaluation Seminar presentation on theory, issues and innovations spoken critical analysis with references Reflective report Part 1: thematic literature review Part 2: practical application and evaluation © Unitec New Zealand5

ISCG8021 Impact of Information Technology on Society Assignment 1: Presentation - 15% Describe specific technology Review literature, including relevant research Spoken critical analysis with references Report – 35% A report on social issues that could arise from the technology Presentation - 15% Describe specific technology Review literature, including relevant research Spoken critical analysis with references Report – 35% A report on social issues that could arise from the technology Assignment 2: Essay – 50% …on theory, issues and innovations Critically analyse + evaluate Identify issues in a workplace setting Formulate solutions Evaluate solutions Essay – 50% …on theory, issues and innovations Critically analyse + evaluate Identify issues in a workplace setting Formulate solutions Evaluate solutions © Unitec New Zealand6

EDUC 8896 Curriculum and Assessment Assignment 1: Essay overview concepts of curriculum and assessment using wide range of literature Describe a specific context Examine and critique theories and specific issues that apply to the context critique issues that are debated in your educational sector overview concepts of curriculum and assessment using wide range of literature Describe a specific context Examine and critique theories and specific issues that apply to the context critique issues that are debated in your educational sector Assignment 2: Presentation - 15% Explain a context Critically appraise organisational practice and personal practice With reference to theories design a project to review and improve current practice. Essay – 35% identify the project design and critically reflect on the process of appraising organisational practice and your personal practice Presentation - 15% Explain a context Critically appraise organisational practice and personal practice With reference to theories design a project to review and improve current practice. Essay – 35% identify the project design and critically reflect on the process of appraising organisational practice and your personal practice © Unitec New Zealand7

Discuss: What criteria do your lecturers have for assessing your assignments? © Unitec New Zealand8

Analyse the criteria: Knowledge – Critical analysis – Argument – Sources – Structure – Referencing –

Analyse the criteria: Knowledge – topic, context, issues Critical analysis – analysis, compare & contrast; evaluation Argument – writer’s ‘voice’ & thinking Structure – follows question; logical order Sources – range & use of evidence Referencing – accurate APA (6 th ed.) Presentation and proofreading

Lecturers usually expect: responses to the questions they asked - RTQ balance of theory and practice a structure which follows the question organised & logical paragraphs some discussion of context – NZ or your own evidence from expert texts, in your own words accurate referencing - APA © Unitec New Zealand11

What are the features of academic writing? Task: look at the text Identify features that make the text academic Task: look at the text Identify features that make the text academic © Unitec New Zealand12

Social psychologists, communication scholars, and those working in the business, information and organisational science areas were among the first to undertake research on and other forms of computer-mediated communication (CMC). More recently linguists have begun to take an interest in this medium which may well be the dominant interpersonal communications medium in this millennium “approaching if not overshadowing voice” (Negroponte, 1995, p. 191). This paper outlines the growth of over the last ten years, reviews research on the social and psychological effects of and other forms of CMC, on the benefits of in relation to other means of communication, and on the role of in workplace politics. Research on different styles of communication, including gender differences in use is also summarised. © Unitec New Zealand13

Features of academic writing emphasised by lecturers A structure – Introduction – Body – Conclusion In-text references and a reference list Ideas which are explained and linked in paragraphs Reader knows where the writer is taking them (tour guide - signposts) Good presentation and proof reading © Unitec New Zealand14

What work does an academic writer do? 1.Conveys information / ideas about the topic / content 2.Conveys his/ her thinking and argument Task: look at the 2 texts What is the writer’s purpose in each text? 1.Conveys information / ideas about the topic / content 2.Conveys his/ her thinking and argument Task: look at the 2 texts What is the writer’s purpose in each text? © Unitec New Zealand15

In the workplace, managers have generally been quick to see the possibilities offered by this new communication medium. The closing years of the twentieth century saw the introduction and widespread adoption of as a means of workplace communication. A sample of 900 people aged 13 and above, conducted recently by NFO CM Research (NZ) (personal communication, April 12, 2001) revealed that approximately 40% of people employed full time have their own internet connection at work. These rates are increasing at 2-3 percent per year. In some workplaces in the corporate world has become the pervasive communication medium to the extent that at Microsoft for example, where probably 99% of communication takes place via , it is said that the phone never rings (Kinsley, 1996). © Unitec New Zealand16

The role of in promoting democracy in organisations and in organisational politics has also been examined. It has been claimed that gives a voice to the voiceless and reduces status imbalance (Sproull & Kiesler, 1992; Bishop & Levine, 1999). However, experimental studies show that status differences persisted in both face-to-face and electronic groups (Weisband, Schneider & Connolly, 1995). ……Giving a voice to the voiceless does not always produce positive effects from the point of view of an organisation. can be and has been used to support disruptive organisational politics. Romm and Pliskin (1997, p. 95) used the term "virtual politicking" to describe this use. Their virtual politicking model brings together data from a series of real-life incidents in which was used for political manipulation within and between organisations. It makes two assumptions…. © Unitec New Zealand17

Both are important, but where should the balance lie? Description What…? Why is important? Who says? How…? Description What…? Why is important? Who says? How…? Critical analysis Why? How has it been studied? How does x compare with y? From what viewpoints? How useful? Critical analysis Why? How has it been studied? How does x compare with y? From what viewpoints? How useful? © Unitec New Zealand18

Descriptive and critical writing– both are important -where should the balance lie? What are the key concepts? How have the key concepts been defined? What are the main points given by writers on this topic? If they did research, how did they do it? What conclusions did they reach? What are the key issues? In workplaces, how are these concepts being applied? Who says? How do one expert’s views compare with another’s? What are the links and relationships between different ideas? What ideas / themes / theories / assumptions underlie the work? How similar or different are these? How do the ideas fit your context? How useful is the thinking of experts in relation to your practice? © Unitec New Zealand19

Some key words in critical writing: © Unitec New Zealand20

Critical writing in an assignment: Analysis – What is the topic, why important and what are the issues? Synthesis / Relationships – What views are expressed by different experts / authors? Evaluation / Implications – Identify strengths and weaknesses – how do these ideas connect with practice? Analysis – What is the topic, why important and what are the issues? Synthesis / Relationships – What views are expressed by different experts / authors? Evaluation / Implications – Identify strengths and weaknesses – how do these ideas connect with practice? © Unitec New Zealand21

Making evaluative comments, e.g. Some research on organisational culture does not fully apply to the New Zealand setting because … These studies have emphasised ……, as opposed to…. It appears that further investigations are needed in order to… This survey of the literature suggests that this approach might be less effective when….

Pointing out what’s not discussed: To date the research has not addressed whether or not people who object to having scans are also likely to… Begum and Mackintosh (2008) do not seem to have considered the more important question of whether… The studies mentioned above appear to have some limitations mainly concerning ……. see Academic PhrasebankAcademic Phrasebank

Introduction Aspect 1: include evidence Aspect 2: include evidence Aspect 3: (etc.) Final summary and conclusion Background, definitions of key terms and concepts – include evidence

Write in paragraphs Paragraphs are the building blocks of academic writing A paragraph deals with one main idea This is usually stated at or near the beginning of the paragraph The ideas is developed and discussed in the body of the paragraph The idea is concluded in a way that leads to the next paragraph Paragraphs are the building blocks of academic writing A paragraph deals with one main idea This is usually stated at or near the beginning of the paragraph The ideas is developed and discussed in the body of the paragraph The idea is concluded in a way that leads to the next paragraph © Unitec New Zealand25

It is often said that people need to drink 6-8 glasses of water per day to stay healthy and well-hydrated. However it is hard to find solid scientific evidence to support this claim (Valtin, 2002). Valtin points out that food contains some fluid, and also says it is not clear whether a range of different beverages can be consumed in place of water. A study by Le Bellego et al. (2010) compared a number of surveys aimed at investigating people’s actual fluid intake. They found it hard to compare conclusions because of differences in the ways the surveys were conducted. A later study (European Food Safety Authority (EFSA), 2010) has concluded that guidelines on adequate intake of fluid need to consider factors such as type of fluid, environmental factors, energy output, age and health status. Clearly the topic is more complicated than the everyday advice suggests.

Building an argument 3 part structure to a critical argument: 1.Statement of the assertion or claim you are making 2.Evidence to support that assertion – from literature 3.The significance of the evidence is explained 3 part structure to a critical argument: 1.Statement of the assertion or claim you are making 2.Evidence to support that assertion – from literature 3.The significance of the evidence is explained

Use topic sentences to organise and guide the reader The inclusion of goals within discussion about leadership in the literature is almost standard. However the treatment of vision is more varied. While Weber (1987)refers to vision and philosophy, “a leader provides the guidance and central themes for … the general understanding of the school’s philosophy” (p. 6), he does not give guidance on how to convey this vision to staff or students or place it within his six function model. Starratt (2003), on the other hand, describes…

Tentative language Physical fitness is the most important factor in athletic performance (Lardner, 2003; Newcastle & Lind, 2005). There is some evidence to suggest that physical fitness may be one of the most important factors in athletic performance (Newcastle & Lind, 2005).

Exercise: Tentative writing 1.Everyone needs to drink 6-8 glasses of water per day. 2.Business growth occurs as a direct result of targeted investment. © Unitec New Zealand30

Reflective writing Personal writing, usually about learning and/or practice for you and/or organisation PastPresentFuture What happened in the past? What’s happening now? What would you do differently in future? What learning was earlier practice based on? What are you learning now? How is your thinking changing? How can present learning influence your future actions?

Academic writing is… Supported / Backed up Based on careful reading of evidence Read and use appropriate sources / references Cite / Reference every source Supported / Backed up Based on careful reading of evidence Read and use appropriate sources / references Cite / Reference every source © Unitec New Zealand32

What is referencing? …a standard method of acknowledging the sources of information and ideas that you have used in your assignment.

APA referencing system In-text references in sentences in the body of the assignment shows where you’ve used ideas and words of an expert includes name of author and year Reference List on a separate page at the end of the assignment list of materials you have consulted © Unitec New Zealand34

In- text referencing: Paraphrasing: -ideas of experts in your own words -show your own understanding of the writer’s ideas -NEED REFERENCES -(Cottrell, 2003). -Use most Paraphrasing: -ideas of experts in your own words -show your own understanding of the writer’s ideas -NEED REFERENCES -(Cottrell, 2003). -Use most Quotation -exact copied chunks of text from experts -NEED REFERENCES (Cottrell, 2003, p. 134). -Use least <20% Quotation -exact copied chunks of text from experts -NEED REFERENCES (Cottrell, 2003, p. 134). -Use least <20% © Unitec New Zealand36

Quoting: “academic success may be more a question of good strategy and of building upon experience rather than underlying intelligence" copying exactly the words of the author(s). When quoting, use quotation marks around the author's words, “academic success may be more a question of good strategy and of building upon experience rather than underlying intelligence" (Cottrell, 2003, p. 134). author's family name, year of publication, page number. For example (Cottrell, 2003, p. 134). Macfie (2002) ” (p. 21). Macfie (2002) points out that “sound policies, procedures and training are not necessarily enough to protect employers from prosecution” (p. 21).

Consider paraphrasing and quotation Explaining other people’s ideas, in your own words A process of rewriting ideas of expert writers Why is paraphrasing desirable? When can quotes be useful? © Unitec New Zealand38

Original text “The education system has performed, on an even wider scale, a major task of social control, training the growing workforce in the discipline and work style necessary in a capitalist economy, and systematically conveying ‘acceptable’ — i.e. safe — social attitudes to the rising generations”. From: Jagtenberg, T. & D’Alton, P. (1988). Four Dimensional Social Space. Sydney: Harper & Row. © Unitec New Zealand39

Example of a paraphrase As a form of socialisation, the education system has worked in two ways: teaching people appropriate ways of working in a capitalist society, and maintaining socially accepted attitudes and values (Jagtenberg & D’Alton, 1988). Words in common in the 2 versions: Education system / economy / acceptable © Unitec New Zealand40

Use of in-text references Other researchers have also addressed the social effects of . "Managers focussing only on the productivity benefits of may fail to anticipate the larger social consequences" (Weisband & Reinig, 1995, p. 43). The headlines at the beginning of this paper illustrate at least two of these, namely, unwanted or inappropriate forms of communication, as well as worker stress from too much information, and being expected to reply quickly. This latter effect was identified in research into one Wellington workplace (Waldvogel, 1999).….. …Related to social consequences is the whole issue of privacy, with its attendant human rights complications. In Britain, regulations have been drafted which give management the right to "snoop on" employee's s and telephone calls without their consent to find out whether they are business-related or just gossip (Taranaki Daily News, 2000). A TVNZ Paul Holmes programme (October 12, 2000) suggests that this is becoming a major issue in New Zealand workplaces too. © Unitec New Zealand41

Where should an academic writer put citations? This is a minor illustration of an issue that can no longer be dismissed as trivial. In August 2007 the World Health Organisation released the preliminary results of its research into the links between noise and stress. Its work so far suggests that long-term exposure to noise from traffic alone could be responsible, around the world, for hundreds and thousands of deaths through ischaemic heart disease every year, as well as contributing to strokes, high blood pressure, tinnitus, broken sleep and other stress-related illnesses. Noise, researchers found, raises your levels of stress hormones even while you sleep. As a study of children living close to airports in Germany suggests, it also damages long-term memory, reading and speech perception. All over the world, complaints about noise are rising: yet to an alien observer it would appear that the primary purpose of economic growth is to find ever more intrusive means of burning fossil fuels. Monbiot, G. (2007, October 12). Comment and debate: We should welcome a recession now. The Guardian Weekly, p. 18.

Observe the work of other academic writers “Academic language is no one’s mother tongue” (Bourdieu, 1998) We learn this language gradually At times, pay attention to how things are being said, as well as what’s being conveyed “Academic language is no one’s mother tongue” (Bourdieu, 1998) We learn this language gradually At times, pay attention to how things are being said, as well as what’s being conveyed

“Academic language is no-one’s mother tongue” (Bourdieu & Passeron, 1994, p. 8). We develop this language gradually… notice how other academic writers express ideas

Reading: process Determine your purpose – I’m reading this because I need to know…… ? – What are the questions or problems at the centre of your assignment topic? Decide what to read and how to read it Engage critically with the readings – Ask questions as you read Organise your ideas – List the important topics or themes to be covered Write throughout the process – if you spend 30 min reading, take 5-10 mins to write about what was most useful or interesting or relevant Determine your purpose – I’m reading this because I need to know…… ? – What are the questions or problems at the centre of your assignment topic? Decide what to read and how to read it Engage critically with the readings – Ask questions as you read Organise your ideas – List the important topics or themes to be covered Write throughout the process – if you spend 30 min reading, take 5-10 mins to write about what was most useful or interesting or relevant © Unitec New Zealand45

Planning your writing What are the main themes or topics to be covered? Start by pulling in everything that seems important – Brainstorm all the important topics and headings to cover, in a mindmapmindmap – Look for ways of clustering them into meaningful groups Then organise the material from the mind map into a plan for writing – Look at examples: mindmap format; outline formatmindmap formatoutline format What are the main themes or topics to be covered? Start by pulling in everything that seems important – Brainstorm all the important topics and headings to cover, in a mindmapmindmap – Look for ways of clustering them into meaningful groups Then organise the material from the mind map into a plan for writing – Look at examples: mindmap format; outline formatmindmap formatoutline format © Unitec New Zealand46

An assignment/dissertation is a project with steps / phases:  Question analysis  Identifying themes  Literature search  Reading and notemaking  Analysis and interpretation  Writing up – as you go  References – as you go  A handy planning tool A handy planning tool  Question analysis  Identifying themes  Literature search  Reading and notemaking  Analysis and interpretation  Writing up – as you go  References – as you go  A handy planning tool A handy planning tool © Unitec New Zealand47

Start writing early “Since you are never ready to write, you start writing before you are ready.” George Watson

Get into the writing habit Don’t wait until you’ve worked out all your ideas; use writing to work out your ideas Accept that your first drafts will be imperfect Reading and research to exploratory drafts to polished writing Don’t wait until you’ve worked out all your ideas; use writing to work out your ideas Accept that your first drafts will be imperfect Reading and research to exploratory drafts to polished writing © Unitec New Zealand49

Proofread 2-3x to check for:  clear introduction and conclusion  the key or strongest points in response to the question: are they at the beginnings of paragraphs?  is referencing accurate – in-text and in list?  Grammar, spelling, punctuation  clear introduction and conclusion  the key or strongest points in response to the question: are they at the beginnings of paragraphs?  is referencing accurate – in-text and in list?  Grammar, spelling, punctuation

© Unitec New Zealand51 Write with a plan Have a set of headings or theme areas Write regularly and seek feedback From your lecturer From a learning advisor (Learning Centre) Keep the reader(s) in mind An educated, non-specialist reader Is your argument clearly stated? Have you answered the “so what” question? Write with a plan Have a set of headings or theme areas Write regularly and seek feedback From your lecturer From a learning advisor (Learning Centre) Keep the reader(s) in mind An educated, non-specialist reader Is your argument clearly stated? Have you answered the “so what” question?

References © Unitec New Zealand52 Cottrell, S. (2008). The study skills handbook. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. Godfrey, J. (2009). How to use your reading in your essays. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. Swales, J., & Feak, C. (2004). Academic Writing for Graduate Students: A course for nonnative speakers of English (2 nd Ed.). Ann Arbor, Michigan: University of Michigan Press. Waldevogel, J. (2001). and workplace communication: A literature review. Language in the Workplace Occasional Papers, 3, Retrieved March 1, 2008 from papers.aspx Wallace, M., & Wray, A. (2006). Critical reading and writing for postgraduates. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Useful links for academic writing: Unitec Moodle: Te Puna Ako Learning CentreTe Puna Ako Learning Centre Sections Postgraduate Resources Academic Writing Referencing Study Toolbox University of Manchester. (2014). Academic Phrasebank. Retrieved from