Nutrition expedition ANDREW PEAKER

CARBOHYDRATES (chemical structure Carbohydrates consist of a simple chain of sugar molecules called a monosaccharide which is the base unit for all carbohydratess. Glucose, fructose, ribose, and galactose are all monosaccharides. The simplified or empirical formula for the carbohydrate is CH2O Carbohydrates are made up of carbon oxygen and hydrogen with a 2:1 ratio for hydrogen.

Structure of monosacchrides (monomers)

Polysaccharides A polysaccharide (or polymer) is simply a monosaccharide which has been broken apart and connected with other monosaccharide through the process of dehydration synthesis and hydrolysis

Hydrolysis Hydrolysis is the process where a polymer’s chains are broken up by the presence of water and turned into monomers

Dehydration synthesis Dehydration synthesis occurs when the ends of two or more monomers break apart to produce water in which case the carbohydrates forms a new bond with each other linking up to form a chain or polymer

Types of polymers Cellulose: the most prevalent polysaacharide on earth with a chain which is linear and consists of roughly 50% of all plant carbon Starch: is a plant reserve carbohydrate which is stored as glucose the chain is branched Glycogen: this is stored in animal muscle and liver cells,which serves as an energy reserve when needed with a highly branched structure

Polymer images

The types of bonding within molecules Carbohydrates are bonded through dehydration synthesis. New bonds are formed through this which create covalent bonds between carbohydrates. This is also called a glycosidic bond.

Functions in living organisms Plants store glucose as starch and convert it into cellulose. (Glucose is the product of photosynthesis) Consumers eat carbohydrates which then break the polymer chains into glucose. Glucose is turned into ATP during cellular respiration to power all cell functions. A stockpile of this is stored in the liver.

LIPIDS

Chemical structure Lipids are non-polar organic compounds that constitute a broad group of naturally occurring molecules that include fats, waxes, sterols, fat soluble vitamins, monoglycerides, diglycerides, triglycerides, and phospholipids. The main biological function of lipids include energy storage, as structural components of cell membranes and are good insulators for electricity. Lipids consist of carbon ,hydrogen and oxygen as a carbon chain skeleton with a carboxyl group (- COOH) at one end.

Chemical structure for lipids

Hydrolysis for lipids Just as in the hydrolysis for carbohydrates, water is added which breaks apart bonds and forms new ones

Dehydration synthesis lipids Just as before dehydration synthesis uses the (O) and (H) binds in the lipids to form water, the newly formed bond is a link of lipid molecules.

Monomer lipids Monomer lipids do not have a repeating pattern like other types of molecules

Polymer lipids Lipids also are contrasted in that they do not form long chains like carbohydrates but stack up upon each other side by side

The fatty acids Fatty acids are non-polar chains of carbon and hydrogen with carboxylic acid at the end. As Ms.Castleman stated they “look like sperm” Saturated fatty acids do not contain any double bonds of carbon and is saturated with hydrogen. These fats are solid at room temperature are considered worse than unsaturated Unsaturated fatty acids contain a double bond of carbon in the chain and are healthier and liquid at room temperature

Fatty acids saturated heads unsaturated

The Bonding types for lipid molecules For lipid molecules, the bonds that are attached to the fatty acids are called ester linkages which are non-polar hydrogen and carbon bonds. These bonds cause kinks in the acid linkage

Functions of lipids in organisms Lipids are used as energy storage as they have a lot of stored energy in a small space. In addition, they also are used as hormones which control metabolic function and act as a structural building block for cells. They also act as a insulator for nerve cells protecting our nervous system yellow part of the nerve cell is a lipid called glycopids

Proteins

Chemical structure of proteins Proteins are polymers of a molecule called a amino acid Proteins are used for structures or serve as a function for the body. There are over 100 amino acids to a proteins in general

Functional proteins Functional proteins are things such as antibodies which work in your immune system to help you fight disease and infection

Structural function of proteins Proteins can be used for support or structure,our nails and hair are composed of a protein called keratin

Monomer molecules For proteins the monomer molecules are composed of amino acids, there are twenty in all which are separated into three groups: amino group, carboxyl group, R-group

Polymer proteins When amino acids form bonds these are strong and covalent. This is called a peptide bond which is formed through dehydration synthesis of the amino acids where the O and H Bonds of both acids separate to form water which allows the acids to form bonds with one another.

Formation of bonds Hydrolysis: just like in lipids and carbohydrates water is added to break apart the bonds. In proteins, the broken bonds form amino acids. Dehydration synthesis: As in lipids and carbohydrates water is removed from two molecules which a new bond is formed between two or more molecules. In proteins this is called a peptide bond

Polypeptide structure Primary structure: This is a simple linear chain of amino acids

Polypeptide structure Secondary structure: Protein molecules become twisted due to the peptide bonds. H-bonds create a spring shape called an alpha helix or a linear shape or beta helix.

Polypeptide structure Tertiary structure: As the alpha helix becomes longer some amino acids do not fit in the configuration which cause kinks in the spiral pattern which create a globe like shape from formed hydrogen bonds since the kinks make amino acids closer to one another which allow this to happen.

Polypeptide structure Quaternary structure: in this structure, groups of the globular tertiary structures come together and form a quaternary structure. The hemoglobin in our blood is a quaternary structure.

Protein function in organisms Proteins can be used as a catalyst for biological reactions Proteins are also used as enzymes antibodies and transport molecules such as hemoglobin. Proteins are also essential for movement as muscles bones and ligaments are comprised of proteins.