The Science of Marine Biology

Latitude/longitude system Developed by Greeks Latitude = east-west Longitude = north-south In degrees 1 degree=60 minutes 1 minute = 60 seconds Latitude lines never intersect so called parallels- 0*parallel = equator Longitude lines called meridians- 0* meridian goes through the Royal Naval Observatory in Greenwich, England (the prime meridian)

Other cultures such as Egyptians, Pacific Islanders, the Vikings and Arab traders also studied the oceans as well Early explorer video Polynesians underwent the earliest known regular long-distance, open- ocean out of sight of land voyages

Middle Ages (800 A.D -1400) A time of “intellectual darkness” Become an illiterate society Believed Earth was flat Only European voyages were Vikings

Viking Explorations (790 A.D. – 1100) Established trade routes with Britain, Ireland, Southern Europe, North Africa, and Central Asia. Discovered Iceland, Greenland and North America (Newfoundland, Canada) Contributed to European ship design

Chinese Explorations Invented the magnetic compass (1125) Traded with Korea, Japan, and Australia Contributed central rudders and watertight compartments to ship building

European Explorations ( ) Renaissance period- centered in Italy Ocean expeditions were conduced for economic, political and religious reasons

James Cook and the Birth of Marine Science An English sea captain One of the first to make scientific observations on his travels and to include a full time naturalist Beginning in 1768, he explored all of the oceans Used the chronometer- an instrument that helped to determine his longitude and latitude and make accurate charts

First European to see the Antarctic and to land in Hawaii, New Zealand, Tahiti and other Pacific islands. Killed in 1779 in a fight with native Hawaiians at Kealakekua Bay Hawaii

Charles Darwin English Naturalist on the Beagle Described atolls- rings of coral reef Studied plankton and barnacles

United States Exploring Expedition The “Wilkes Expedition” 2 out of 6 ships returned Confirmed Antarctica was a continent Explored 280 islands Collected 2,000 unknown species video

Matthew Maury- Father of Physical Oceanography US Naval Officer world tours 1842 appointed superintendent of Dept of Charts and Instruments of the Navy department Began publishing his work His system for recording oceanic data was adapted worldwide especially his studies of currents and winds

The Challenger Expedition- British First expedition entirely devoted to marine science to 1876 Sailed 80,778 miles Report took 23 years to complete Discovered the Mid-Atlantic ridge and the Marianas Trench

Took the first soundings deeper than 4000 meters Discovered marine organisms in the deepest part of the ocean Sampled and illustrated plankton Catalogued and identified 715 new genera and 4717 new species NASA named space shuttle after it

Oceanography Explosion Due to Industrial Revolution and the advancement of technology Rise of steam engines and iron ships Development of the diesel engine, electric motor and lead-acid battery lead to the development of submarines Wealthier countries = more research $ therefore applied research increased dramatically as well as pure research The Cold War and global conflict fueled scientific discovery

Important 20 th Century Expeditions German Meteor expedition One of 1 st modern oceanographic research cruises Crossed Atlantic 14 times in two years Mapped Atlantic seafloor with echo- sounding technology- 1 st one of its kind

Atlantis expedition- U.S st ship built specifically for ocean studies Confirmed and mapped the Mid-Atlantic Ridge Space shuttle named after it

New H.M.S. Challenger II year voyage to the Atlantic, Pacific and Indian oceans Found deepest part of ocean (the Challenger Deep) in the Marianas Trench- 10, 838 meters

RV Flip

SUBMERSIBLES AND SELF- CONTAINED DIVING

Submersibles 3 basic types 1. Bathysphere- developed by William Beebe and Otis Barton in the 1930’s Steel ball with a window and an umbilical Only went vertically- attached by a cable to a ship 1932 Beebe and Barton reached 661 meters

The bathysphere (1930)

2. Bathyscaphe Similar to bathysphere except it was attached to a large float instead of to a cable and ship Limited horizontal motion because of propellers Deepest diving submersibles ever made Trieste traveled to the bottom of the Challenger Deep

3. Deep-Diving submersibles 2-3 person vessels Moderate to deep depths Good horizontal movement No float tanks Less fragile Robotic arms Alvin most famous-discovered the Titanic- Jason Project- operated by Woods Hole Oceanographic Institute (US Navy)

Johnson Sealink Submersible

Advantages of submersibles Great depths Duration of dives are longer Disadvantages of submersibles Very expensive Need of support vessels and diving teams Very large, so not able to have access to many places

Self-Contained Diving 1 st was hard-hat (helmet) diving- Englishman named Augustus Siebe Good for underwater labor, not good for research because it was heavy and required a support team and vessel

427 ft in Lk Michigan NOAA, US Monitor

Englishman Henry Fleuss introduced the first workable scuba in 1878 Recirculated pure oxygen which is only useable to a depth of 10 meters or 33 ft Frenchman Jacques Cousteau and engineer Emile Gagnan developed the scuba system used today in 1943 Delivers compressed air and only provides it when the diver inhaled Easy to use, lightweight, simple, little support needed

Advantages of SCUBA Less expensive Very simple- don’t need a team Portable and small More dexterity Disadvantages of SCUBA Usually limited to about m ( ft)-compressed air and to about 150 m with synthetic breathing gases Duration is smaller due to cold, pressure, and fatigue

Hardsuits In between a submersible and scuba More protection from temp. and pressure More mobile than submersibles Deeper dives Expensive Also need some team support as well

ROVs, AUVs, Electronic Navigation, and Satellites

ROVs “Remotely operated vehicle” Small unmanned submarine with propellers, video camera and an umbilical Operator at surface Can have arms, claws and other tools

AUVs “Autonomous Underwater Vehicle” Untethered robotic device Self-contained power systems Controlled by an attached computer Maneuverable in 3 dimensions

Electronic navigation 1 st was LORAN (Long Range Navigation)- 1960s Developed into Loran-C- based on radio signals from the coast- needed to triangulate to get ships position Accurate within a few meters But only worked where Loran transmitters were located Accuracy depended on distance from transmitter

Satellites – sea surface observations.

a) Satellites orbit the Earth and assist oceanographers with global observations of the oceans. b) Satellites assist oceanographers in understanding the influence and effect of the oceans on the global climate systems. c) Information gathered from satellites helps to validate computer models that numerically simulate climatic events. 1) Three types of sea surface observations made by satellites o benefit oceanographers:

a) Provide long-time continuous measurements of variables such as sea-surface height, shape, temperature, and color over the entire planet. b) Can detect algae blooms and river plumbs, monitor pollution, and assist oceanographers in understanding the influence and effect of the oceans on the global climate system. c) Scientists can look at large areas of ocean in a very short time.

GPS “Global Positioning System”- 1990s Developed by U.S. Military Receives signals from satellites Accurate within 1-2 meters