FEM 3101 Developmental Psychology: Children and Adolescents PJJ - FACE TO FACE 2 SEMESTER 2 SESSION 2012-2013 24 FEBRUARY 2013 SITINOR/FEM3101/FEBRUARI 2013/PJJ

e-mail: sitinor@putra.upm.edu.my/sitinor8888@gmail.com INSTRUCTOR: DR. SITI NOR BINTI YAACOB DEPT. OF HUMAN DEVELOPMENT & FAMILY STUDIES FACULTY OF HUMAN ECOLOGY Tel.: 603-89467088/ 03-89467093/012-2841844 e-mail: sitinor@putra.upm.edu.my/sitinor8888@gmail.com SITINOR/FEM3101/FEBRUARI 2013/PJJ

COURSE SYNOPSIS Processes of physical, cognitive, social and emotional growth and development from conception through adolescence. Emphasis on the major aspects at each stage of development. Processes and outcomes of interaction between the child-adolescent and the environment. SITINOR/FEM3101/FEBRUARI 2013/PJJ

COURSE OBJECTIVES By the end of the course students will be able to: Identify ecological processes of physical, socio-emotional and cognitive development of children and adolescents.(C2) Explain the effects of genetic, environment, and genetic-environment interactions influences on children-adolescent development. (C4, A3, CS) Explain the effects of children-adolescent interactions with the environment on children-adolescent growth and development. (P3, CTPS, TS) SITINOR/FEM3101/FEBRUARI 2013/PJJ

About the course Part One: Introduction - Concepts, Theories & Research Part Two: Child Psychology Part Three: Adolescent psychology SITINOR/FEM3101/FEBRUARI 2013/PJJ

Highlights the prenatal development of the unborn child. COURSE CONTENT – 5 UNITS Unit 1: Introduces major concepts, principles and theories of child and adolescent development. Unit 1 also covers various alternative methods researchers use to explore questions or obtain information on child and adolescent development. Unit 2: Highlights the prenatal development of the unborn child. SITINOR/FEM3101/FEBRUARI 2013/PJJ

Postnatal Development – Birth & Infancy COURSE CONTENT – 5 UNITS Unit 3: Postnatal Development – Birth & Infancy Unit 4: Covers physical, intellectual, language and socio-emotional development of children (early – late childhood). SITINOR/FEM3101/FEBRUARI 2013/PJJ

COURSE CONTENT – 5 UNITS Unit 5: Covers significant aspects of adolescent development such as physical, cognitive, personality, moral and vocational planning. Specific developmental problems during adolescence are highlighted. SITINOR/FEM3101/FEBRUARI 2013/PJJ

LECTURE TOPICS Introduction Prenatal development Postnatal development Physical development in children Cognitive development in children Language development in children Socio-emotion and values development in children Adolescents’ physical development Adolescents’ cognitive development Adolescents’ socio-emotional development Adolescents’ vocational and career development SITINOR/FEM3101/FEBRUARI 2013/PJJ

Assessments Assessment % Assignment 1 (Week 1 – 7) 10 Mid semester test 20 Assignment 2 (Lab) 1. Prenatal development report 5 2. Lab project for children 3. Lab project for adolescent 15 Final exam 30 SITINOR/FEM3101/FEBRUARI 2013/PJJ

Derived from Latin words: psyche & logos WHAT IS PSYCHOLOGY? Derived from Latin words: psyche & logos Psyche = soul/emotions (feelings) Logos = knowledge/field of studies Broad definition: Psychology is the scientific study of behavior and cognitive processes. It describes thinking and behavior and looks at the relationships between them (“the what”) and tries to explain the causes for them (“the why”) SITINOR/FEM3101/FEBRUARI 2013/PJJ

DEFINITION OF CONCEPT What is Growth (Pertumbuhan)? What is Development (Perkembangan)? SITINOR/FEM3101/FEBRUARI 2013/PJJ

Growth is a quantitative process of change ex. change in weight/height – i.e. changes in size and structure, physical and mental aspects. Changes can be measured & assess - from one stage to the other. Growth will reach its peak once a person mature. SITINOR/FEM3101/FEBRUARI 2013/PJJ

DEFINITION “Growth is an individual development in body size, for example changes in muscles, bones, hair, skin & glands. [Karl E. Garrison] “Growth is a change that can be measured from one stage to the other, and from time to time” [Atan Long] “Growth as an increment in a person external attributes. For examples in terms of size, height and body weight” [D.S Wright & Ann Taylor] SITINOR/FEM3101/FEBRUARI 2013/PJJ

WHAT IS DEVELOPMENT? Development is change. Child development is a scientific study of processes of change and stability from conception through adolescence. It involves changes in physical, social, emotional and intellectual functioning over time. Changes include alterations in size, shape and function. It can be either progressive or regressive. Development occurs in the context of the significant social environment of life process (family, school, peer group, community). SITINOR/FEM3101/FEBRUARI 2013/PJJ

The study of children is concerned with two primary types of change over time: Quantitative change: refers to the easily measurable and sometimes obvious aspects of development (including physical growth – height & weight, vocabulary, frequency of communication & years of education) Qualitative change: refers to variations and modifications in functioning. It is a change in kind, structure or organization. SITINOR/FEM3101/FEBRUARI 2013/PJJ

Behavioral change as a developmental change Three general condition/criteria The change is orderly or sequential. The change results in a permanent alteration of behavior. The change results in a new behavior or mode of functioning that is more advanced, adaptive or useful than prior behaviors. SITINOR/FEM3101/FEBRUARI 2013/PJJ

Thus….Child Development is…. A scientific study of understanding all aspects of human constancy and change from conception through adolescence A part of a larger discipline known as developmental psychology or human development, which includes all changes experienced throughout the lifespan SITINOR/FEM3101/FEBRUARI 2013/PJJ

Developmental stages Prenatal Infancy (0-2 years) & Toddlerhood (2-3 years) Early childhood(3-6 years) Middle childhood (6-10 years) Adolescence (11-19 years) Early (11-14 years) Middle (15-17 years) Late (18-19 years) Adulthood(≥ 20 years) Early (20-30 years) Middle (40-50 years) Late (60 years and above) SITINOR/FEM3101/FEBRUARI 2013/PJJ

Change & stability occur in various domains of the self. DOMAINS OF DEVELOPMENT Change & stability occur in various domains of the self. These domains are intertwined – each affects the others. 3 main domains: Physical – growth of the body & brain, sensory capacities, motor skills & health. Cognitive – change & stability in mental abilities (learning, memory, language, thinking, moral reasoning & creativity). Psychosocial - change & stability in personality, emotional life & social relationships. SITINOR/FEM3101/FEBRUARI 2013/PJJ

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Influences on Development: Factors that can influence development are:- Nature (sejadi) Genetic (Warisan/baka/genetik) Nurture (Asuhan) Environment (Persekitaran) Food intake (Pemakanan) Health (Kesihatan) SITINOR/FEM3101/FEBRUARI 2013/PJJ

Major Contextual Influences Normative Influences Normative age-graded influences/event, i..e. biological or social Example = puberty or entry into formal schooling Normative history-graded event, i.e. cohort (a group of people who share a similar experience) Example = living during the Great Depression/Tsunami i.e. Atypical events, e.g. having a birth defect Non-normative Influences Individual events that impact the person Events can be traumatic or happy SITINOR/FEM3101/FEBRUARI 2013/PJJ

Medieval times (6th – 15th centuries) The Reformation (16th centuries) HISTORICAL FOUNDATIONS OF CHILD PYCHOLOGY? Children of antiquity Medieval times (6th – 15th centuries) The Reformation (16th centuries) Philosophies of the Enlightenment (17th centuries) Evolution (Darwinism) & Child Development Birth of Scientific Methodology Mental Testing Movement SITINOR/FEM3101/FEBRUARI 2013/PJJ

Medieval times (6th – 15th centuries) HISTORICAL FOUNDATIONS OF CHILD PYCHOLOGY? Medieval times (6th – 15th centuries) Infants/newborn are regarded as miniature, already formed adult Age was unimportant in medieval custom No concrete theories on children’s uniqueness or separate developmental periods There exist some awareness of the vulnerability of children (child protection laws & special clinical care) SITINOR/FEM3101/FEBRUARI 2013/PJJ

The Reformation (16th centuries) Belief on original sin HISTORICAL FOUNDATIONS OF CHILD PYCHOLOGY? The Reformation (16th centuries) Belief on original sin Children were born evil and stubborn and had to be civilized toward a destiny of virtue and salvation SITINOR/FEM3101/FEBRUARI 2013/PJJ

Philosophies of the Enlightenment (17th centuries) HISTORICAL FOUNDATIONS OF CHILD PYCHOLOGY? Philosophies of the Enlightenment (17th centuries) John Locke (1632-1704) British philosopher who introduced “tabula rasa” Children begin with “nothing at all” Environments shape them Children are viewed in “passive”, “mechanistic” term Ideas on “nurture” (parents as rational tutors) SITINOR/FEM3101/FEBRUARI 2013/PJJ

Philosophies of the Enlightenment (17th centuries) HISTORICAL FOUNDATIONS OF CHILD PYCHOLOGY? Philosophies of the Enlightenment (17th centuries) Jean Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778) Children as “organism” - active shapers of their own destiny Ideas on “nature” – development determined by their own innate nature Innate-goodness view SITINOR/FEM3101/FEBRUARI 2013/PJJ

Evolution (Darwinism) & Child Development Charles Darwin (1809 – 1882) HISTORICAL FOUNDATIONS OF CHILD PYCHOLOGY? Evolution (Darwinism) & Child Development Charles Darwin (1809 – 1882) Theory of Evolution 2 important & related concepts: natural selection & survival of the fittest Emphasizes the adaptive value of physical characteristics/surroundings/ environment and behavior Researchers were prompted to study all aspects of children’s behavior The birth of “the science of child psychology” or child study SITINOR/FEM3101/FEBRUARI 2013/PJJ

Birth of Scientific Methodology Baby Biographies Charles Darwin (1877) HISTORICAL FOUNDATIONS OF CHILD PYCHOLOGY? Birth of Scientific Methodology Baby Biographies Charles Darwin (1877) Emphasizes observations on own children and relatives From rudimentary observations to improved methods SITINOR/FEM3101/FEBRUARI 2013/PJJ

Beginning of 20th century HISTORICAL FOUNDATIONS OF CHILD PYCHOLOGY? Beginning of 20th century G. Stanley Hall pioneered the study of child development Use questionnaire to study children Use scientific method Focus on adolescent development SITINOR/FEM3101/FEBRUARI 2013/PJJ

Mental Testing Movement Alfred Binet (1857-1911) HISTORICAL FOUNDATIONS OF CHILD PYCHOLOGY? Mental Testing Movement Alfred Binet (1857-1911) Binet & Theodore Simon took a normative approach, to find a way to identify children with learning problems who needed to be placed in special classes Stanford-Binet Intelligence Test - 1916 SITINOR/FEM3101/FEBRUARI 2013/PJJ

An emerging consensus All domains are interrelated. Normal development includes a wide range of individual differences. Children help to shape their own development and influence others’ responses to them. Historical and cultural contexts strongly influence development. Early experience is important, but children can be remarkably resilient. Development in childhood is connected to development throughout the rest of the lifespan. SITINOR/FEM3101/FEBRUARI 2013/PJJ

Theories in Developmental Psychology What is a theory? Hypotheses are tentative explanations or predictions that can be tested by research. A theory is a set of logically related concepts or statements, which seeks to describe and explain development and predict what kinds of behavior may occur under certain conditions. Benefits: Explain the meaning of an event/facts Able to relate these facts An orderly, integrated set of statements that: Describes Explains behavior Predicts SITINOR/FEM3101/FEBRUARI 2013/PJJ

Theories Psychoanalytic Learning Cognitive Psychosexual (S. Freud) Psychosocial (E. Erickson) Learning Behavioral Learning Classical Conditioning (Pavlov) Operant Conditioning (Skinner) Social Learning (A. Bandura) Cognitive Cognitive Developmental Theory (J. Piaget) Socio-cultural (L. Vygotsky) Moral Development (Reasoning) (Kohlberg) Human Ecology System (U. Bronfenbrenner) SITINOR/FEM3101/FEBRUARI 2013/PJJ

Freud’s Three Parts of the Personality Id Largest portion of the mind Unconscious, present at birth Source of biological needs & desires Ego Conscious, rational part of mind Emerges in early infancy Redirects id impulses acceptably Superego The conscience Develops from ages 3 to 6, from interactions with caregivers SITINOR/FEM3101/FEBRUARI 2013/PJJ

Psychoanalytic Psychosocial (E. Erickson) * 8 stages of development Psychosexual (S. Freud) *Psychosexual stages Trust versus mistrust Autonomy vs shame Initiative vs guilt Industry vs Inferiority Identity vs Identity Confusion Intimacy versus isolation Generativity vs stagnation Integrity vs despair Oral stage Anal stage Phallic Latency Genital SITINOR/FEM3101/FEBRUARI 2013/PJJ

Psychoanalytic Psychoanalytic theory proposes that morality develops through humans' conflict between their instinctual drives and the demands of society. Freud identified three parts of the personality that become integrated during five stages of development Id Ego Superego SITINOR/FEM3101/FEBRUARI 2013/PJJ DR. MM/FEM/UPM 38

Personality Structure superego ego ID SITINOR/FEM3101/FEBRUARI 2013/PJJ DR. MM/FEM/UPM 39

Personality Structures ID (unconscious element) the largest portion  is the source of basic biological needs and desires. EGO (semi-conscious element) the conscious  rational part of the personality, emerges in early infancy to redirect the id’s impulses so they are discharged in acceptable ways SUPEREGO (The conscious element that function on the basis of morality). the conscience that develops between ages 3 and 6 through interactions with parents, who insist that the child conform to the values of society. SITINOR/FEM3101/FEBRUARI 2013/PJJ DR. MM/FEM/UPM 40

Freud Psychosexual stages: Oral stage [0- 1 year] – Mouth is the focus of stimulation & interaction. Feeding & weaning are central Anal stage [1-3 year] – Anus as the focus of stimulation & interaction. Elimination & toilet training is central SITINOR/FEM3101/FEBRUARI 2013/PJJ DR. MM/FEM/UPM 41

Freud Psychosexual stages: Phallic [3-6year] The genital is the focus of stimulation. Gender role & moral development are central. Conflict between id & superego Children interested to know more different sexes, babies etc. 2 main conflict: Oedipus Conflict  son attracted to mother Electra Conflict  daughter attracted to father Penis envy SITINOR/FEM3101/FEBRUARI 2013/PJJ DR. MM/FEM/UPM 42

Freud Psychosexual stages: Latency [6-12 year] A period of suspended sexual activities; Energy shift to physical and intellectual activities. Focus on achievement Genital [Adolescent – adulthood (12 & above)] Genital are the focus of stimulation with the onset of puberty Mature sexual relationship develop SITINOR/FEM3101/FEBRUARI 2013/PJJ DR. MM/FEM/UPM 43

Erikson’s Psychosocial stages Late Adulthood (60 above) Integrity vs Despair Middle Adulthood (40’s-50’s) Generativity vs Stagnation Young Adulthood (20 -30’s) Intimacy vs Isolation Adolescent (12-19) Identity vs Role Confusion Middle childhood (6-11) Industry vs Inferiority Early Childhood (3-5) Initiative vs Guilt Toddler (1-2) Autonomy vs Shame/doubt Infancy (0-1) Trust vs Distrust SITINOR/FEM3101/FEBRUARI 2013/PJJ

Behaviorism & Social Learning Classical Conditioning (Pavlov) Stimulus – Response Operant Conditioning (Skinner) Reinforcers (Reward) and Punishments Social Learning (Bandura) Modeling SITINOR/FEM3101/FEBRUARI 2013/PJJ

Behavioral Theory Classical Conditioning Ivan Pavlov Operant Conditioning (B.F. Skinner) Learning based on reinforcement (punishment) or punishment Positive reinforcement Negative reinforcement Punishment Behavior modification Stimulus & Response Learning based on association of a stimulus that does not ordinarily elicit a response with another stimulus that does elicit the response. SITINOR/FEM3101/FEBRUARI 2013/PJJ

Behavioral Theory Social Learning Theory Albert Bandura Modelling (Role model) Theory that behaviors are learned by observing and imitating models Observational learning Models Importance of values and thoughts in imitating behavior of a model Practical implications? SITINOR/FEM3101/FEBRUARI 2013/PJJ

Behaviorism & Social Learning Development results from learning Behaviorism – a mechanistic theory Continuous change Quantitative change Importance of the environment Associative learning SITINOR/FEM3101/FEBRUARI 2013/PJJ

Cognitive Theory Socio-Cultural Theory L. Vygotsky Jean Piaget Cognitive Development Community & culture influence on development  Focus is the social, cultural, and historical complex of which the child is part. Social Interaction Zone of proximal development – The difference between what a child can do alone and with help Scaffolding – Temporary support to help a child master a task. Sensorimotor (0-2) Preoperational (2-6) Concrete Operational (6-11) Formal Operation (11-adulthood) SITINOR/FEM3101/FEBRUARI 2013/PJJ

Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory Transmission of culture to new generation Beliefs, customs, skills Social interaction necessary to learn culture Cooperative dialogue with more knowledgeable members of society Zone of proximal Scaffolding SITINOR/FEM3101/FEBRUARI 2013/PJJ

Cognitive Theory Moral Development Kohlberg Paras 1: Moraliti Pra- konvensional (4-9 tahun) Orientasi dendaan dan patuh/taat Hedonisme Instrumental/Orientasi Egoistik Paras 2:Peringkat Konvensional (10-15 tahun) Moraliti “budak baik” Moraliti mengekalkan susunan sosial & autoriti Paras 3:Peringkat Pasca Konvensional Moraliti kontrak, hak individu dan undang-undang secara demokrasi Orientasi prinsip-prinsip moral yang universal dan beretika SITINOR/FEM3101/FEBRUARI 2013/PJJ

THE ECOLOGICAL-SYSTEMS APPROACH Human Ecological System U. Bronfenbrenner View of development that sees the individual as inseparable from the social context Urie Bronfenbrenner’s bio-ecological theory Understanding processes and contexts of development Micro system Meso system Exosystem Macrosystem Chronosystem SITINOR/FEM3101/FEBRUARI 2013/PJJ

Ecological Systems Theory SITINOR/FEM3101/FEBRUARI 2013/PJJ

RESEARCH METHODS IN STUDYING CHILDREN SITINOR/FEM3101/FEBRUARI 2013/PJJ

Research methods Qualitative and quantitative research Scientific method – system of established principles and processes of scientific inquiry Identifying a problem Formulating hypotheses Collecting data Analyzing the data Disseminating findings SITINOR/FEM3101/FEBRUARI 2013/PJJ

Sampling Groups of participants chosen to represent the entire population The sample should adequately represent the population under study Generalization Random selection SITINOR/FEM3101/FEBRUARI 2013/PJJ

Forms of data collection Naturalistic and laboratory observations Parental self-reports Clinical interview Open-ended interview Structured interview Questionnaire Psychophysiological Methods SITINOR/FEM3101/FEBRUARI 2013/PJJ

Systematic Observation Observe respondent in their natural setting Naturalistic Observation In the “field” or natural environment where behavior happens Structured observation Laboratory situation set up to evoke behavior of interest All participants have equal chance to display behavior Participant observation Incognito Record data Audio Video Manual SITINOR/FEM3101/FEBRUARI 2013/PJJ

Interviews Clinical Interview Flexible, conversational style Probes for participant’s point of view Structured Interview Each participant is asked same questions in same way May use questionnaires, get answers from groups SITINOR/FEM3101/FEBRUARI 2013/PJJ

Basic research designs Case studies Collect various information about a subject to be studied (people/event) Make a conclusion about subject understudied. Ethnographic studies Participant observation Correlational studies – To examine the relationship between 2 variables (independent and dependent variables) Research intended to discover whether a statistical relationship between two variables exists Problems of control and interpretation of causality Survey - A study on respondent’s views  on certain issues Use Questionnaires/Structured interview schedule SITINOR/FEM3101/FEBRUARI 2013/PJJ

Correlation Coefficients Magnitude Size of the number between 0 and 1. Closer to one (positive or negative) is a stronger relationship Direction Indicated by + or - sign. Positive (+) means, as one variable increases, so does the other Negative (-) means, as one variable increase, the other decreases. SITINOR/FEM3101/FEBRUARI 2013/PJJ

Correlations SITINOR/FEM3101/FEBRUARI 2013/PJJ

Experimental studies To examine the cause & effect of a phenomena understudied Rigorously controlled, replicable procedure in which the researcher manipulates variables to assess the effect of one on the other. Independent variable - the condition over which the experimenter has direct control Dependent variable - the condition that may or may not change as a result of changes in the independent variable Experimental group and control group SITINOR/FEM3101/FEBRUARI 2013/PJJ

Independent and Dependent Variables Independent variable Experimenter changes, or manipulates Expected to cause changes in another variable. Dependent variable Experimenter measures, but does not manipulate Expected to be influenced by the independent variable Modified Experiments: Natural Experiment Compare differences in treatment that already exist Groups chosen to match characteristics as much as possible Field Experiments Use rare opportunities for natural assignment in natural settings SITINOR/FEM3101/FEBRUARI 2013/PJJ

Designs for Studying Development Longitudinal Same participants studied repeatedly at different ages Cross-sectional People of differing ages all studied at the same time Longitudinal- Cross-sectional Same groups of different-aged people studied repeatedly as they change ages. SITINOR/FEM3101/FEBRUARI 2013/PJJ

Children’s Research Rights Protection from harm Right to Informed consent Knowledge of results Beneficial treatments Avoidance of deception Debriefing, providing a full account and justification of research activities, should take place with children, but does not always work as well Right to privacy and confidentiality SITINOR/FEM3101/FEBRUARI 2013/PJJ