Introduction to Fallacy  Now that you have learned the five persuasive techniques, let’s take a look at the fallacies (or abuses) of persuasion

Definition  A fallacy is an error in reasoning  Typically, a fallacy is based on an incorrect inference or a misuse of evidence

False Cause (Post Hoc)  The author claims that an event occurred because another event occurred prior to it.  Similar to cause and effect; however, the first event does not CAUSE the second making this a faulty cause and effect. Example: ○ She walks to the store and back every day, so surely she can walk in the 10k race.

Slippery Slope  The author argues: should one event occur, so will other harmful events. There is no proof made that the harmful events are caused by the first event. Example: ○ Think of the children’s book “If You Give a Mouse a Cookie…”

Slippery Slope cont.  Can create a domino effect Example: ○ If we legalize marijuana, then more people would start to use crack and heroin, and we'd have to legalize those too. Before long, we'd have a nation full of drug-addicts on welfare. Therefore we cannot legalize marijuana.

Hypothesis Contrary To Fact  Offers a poorly supported claim about what might have happened in the past or future if circumstances or conditions were other than they actually were or are. The fallacy also involves treating hypothetical situations as if they were fact.

Hypothesis cont. Example 1: If you had only tasted the stewed snails, I’m sure you would have liked them. Example 2: If Hitler had not invaded Russia and opened up two military fronts, the Nazis would surely have won the war.

False Analogy  The author incorrectly makes an analogical connection between two unconnected items Example: ○ I think you should give me credit for this class because Joe comes to class only three days out of the week and I’m here everyday. ○ You passed everyone else in the class so I should receive credit like my fellow classmates.

Bandwagon  Claiming the popularity of an idea makes it good. Ex. A lot of people I know own an Xbox 360, so I guess I should buy one. Problem with example: So everyone having and Xbox 360 automatically makes it better? What if the person likes the games better on the Playstation 3 or Nintendo Wii.

False Authority (Ethos)  The author may be an authority in one field but may know nothing about another field. Example: ○ A popular sports star may know a lot about football, but very little about shaving cream.

False Authority cont.  Author makes claims regarding a field that is not his/her authority Example: ○ I may not be a doctor, but I play one on Grey’s Anatomy and I think you should take this medication.

Poisoning the Well (Name Calling)  Rather than using actual facts to provide for your arguments, you use derogatory statements that are irrelevant to the matter at hand. ○ Example 1: Your argument is bad because you are stupid. ○ Example 2: Clinton was a dreadful President solely because he had an inappropriate relationship with Monica Lewinsky.

Poison cont. - Problem with example: Rather than using facts that disprove a person’s argument, the author chooses to attack the person rather than his facts.

Attacking the person (Name- Calling)  The author’s attempt to discredit an idea by attacking the people or organizations associated with it.  Prominent during political campaigns Example: ○ My opponent is not ○ smart enough to be mayor.

Appeal to Pity (ad misericordiam)  The appeal to pity takes place when an arguer tries to get people to accept a conclusion by making them feel sorry for someone. ○ Example 1: I know the exam is graded based on performance, but you should give me an A. My cat has been sick, my car broke down, and I’ve had a cold, so it was really hard tor me to study!

Pity cont. Problem with example: The conclusion here is “You should give me an A.” But the criteria for getting an A has to do with learning and applying the material from the course; the principle the arguer wants us to accept (people who have a hard week deserve A’s) is clearly unacceptable.

Red Herring/Avoiding The Issue  The author introduces irrelevant material to the issue being discussed. Attention is diverted from the issue at hand and toward a different conclusion.  Example: You may claim that the death penalty is an ineffective deterrent against crime--but what about the victims of crime? How do you think surviving family members feel when they see the man who murdered their son kept in prison at their expense? Is it right that they should pay for their son's murderer to be fed and housed?

Red Herring/Avoiding The Issue ○ Yes, I broke my campaign promise not to raise taxes, but higher taxes have led to increase in police patrols, paved highways, and smaller class size in schools.

Circular Reasoning  The author supports a statement simply by repeating it in different words. Example: ○ Teenagers should avoid fad diets because it is important for adolescents to stay away from popular weight-loss plans.  Cause/Cause reasoning Example: ○ Richardson is the most successful mayor the town has ever had because he's the best mayor of our history.

Non Sequitur  The author uses irrelevant “proof” to support a claim. Example: ○ Since Egyptians did so much excavation to construct the pyramids, they were well versed in paleontology.

Non Sequitur cont.  Diverts the reader’s attention to proof that can’t be challenged because it does not logically connect to the subject. Example: ○ I know I’ll pass math. Mr. Gray is my math teacher and my football coach.

Oversimplification  The author describes a complex situation as being much simpler than it is  Also Cause/Effect Fallacy  Example: Making the team depends on whether the coach likes you. The Civil War was started because of slavery.  Why are these examples fallacious?

Overgeneralization/Sweeping Generalization/Dicto Simpliciter  The author describes a situation in a manner that is too broad. Example: ○ But mom, everyone failed the test.  Look for words like all, everyone, every time, anything, no one, and none. Example: ○ No one cares that there is not enough parking downtown. ○ Everyone has fond memories of high school.

Overgeneralization cont.  Also called “Hasty Generalization” Example: ○ Every time I ask to go out on Friday night, my parents refuse to let me!  Stereotype is similar, but based on gender, ethnicity, race, or political, social, professional, or religious group. Example: ○ Everyone knows that the Irish just sit around and drink all the time. ○ Women aren’t as strong as men.

Hasty Generalization  Conclusion drawn from too few samples Example: ○ My roommate got tired playing basketball; therefore, he is overweight. Problem with example: You don’t know whether they have been playing for five minutes or five hours, how intense my roommate played, whether the game was physical or not, etc.

Either/Or  Saying you have only two options. Example 1: You can either drive a Ford or a Chevrolet. Problem with example: There aren’t just two car makes out there. You could drive a Toyota, Nissan, Dodge, and others.