PERSUASIONANDARGUMENT Chapter 15 Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2009 This multimedia product and its contents are protected under copyright law. The following are prohibited by law: any public performance or display, including transmission of any image over a network; preparation of any derivative work, including the extraction, in whole or in part, of any images; any rental, lease, or lending of the program

Because there has been implanted in us the power to persuade each other … not only have we escaped the life of the wild beasts but we have come together and founded cities and made laws and invented arts. -- Socrates

If all mankind, minus one, were of the one opinion … mankind would be no more justified in silencing that one person than he … would be justified in silencing mankind. --John Stuart Mill

Persuasion is the art of gaining fair and favorable consideration for our points of view

Characteristics of Persuasive Speaking Urges a choice among options Urges a choice among options Advocates a position Advocates a position Supporting material becomes evidence Supporting material becomes evidence Listeners become agents of change Listeners become agents of change Asks considerable audience commitment Asks considerable audience commitment Credible leadership is important Credible leadership is important Often uses emotional appeals Often uses emotional appeals Ethical obligation is high Ethical obligation is high Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2009

Informative vs. Persuasive Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2009

Argumentative vs. Manipulative Persuasion Manipulative persuasion Manipulative persuasion Suggestion Suggestion Colorful images Colorful images Appealing music Appealing music Attractive spokespersons Attractive spokespersons Argumentative persuasion Argumentative persuasion Builds arguments based on evidence Builds arguments based on evidence Relies heavily on logical reasoning Relies heavily on logical reasoning Addresses judgments rather than impulses Addresses judgments rather than impulses Avoids fallacies Avoids fallacies Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2009

Developing Evidence Use facts and figures to justify advice Use facts and figures to justify advice Use examples to make listeners want to act Use examples to make listeners want to act Use narratives to involve listeners with topic Use narratives to involve listeners with topic Use expert testimony to support your ideas Use expert testimony to support your ideas Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2009

Developing Proofs Logos appeals based on reason Logos appeals based on reason Pathos appeals based on emotions Pathos appeals based on emotions Ethos appeals based on credibility Ethos appeals based on credibility Mythos appeals based on cultural traditions Mythos appeals based on cultural traditions Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2009

Components of Ethos Components of Ethos Competence Competence Character Character Goodwill Goodwill Power Power Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2009

Sources of Ethos Ethos of the speaker Ethos of the speaker Initial credibility at beginning of a speech Initial credibility at beginning of a speech Emerging credibility evolves during speech Emerging credibility evolves during speech Terminal credibility at end of a speech Terminal credibility at end of a speech Ethos of sources cited Ethos of sources cited Reputation of periodicals Reputation of periodicals Expert testimony valued Expert testimony valued Lay testimony adds authenticity Lay testimony adds authenticity Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2009

Using Pathos Portray human dimensions of a problem Portray human dimensions of a problem Examples can develop emotional appeals Examples can develop emotional appeals Personal narratives are most effective Personal narratives are most effective Cannot be too obvious Cannot be too obvious Negative emotional appeals may backfire Negative emotional appeals may backfire Back them up with information Back them up with information Keep delivery understated Keep delivery understated Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2009

Proof by Mythos People value cultural identity People value cultural identity Evoked by traditional stories Evoked by traditional stories Evoked by cultural symbols Evoked by cultural symbols Remind us of heroes or enemies Remind us of heroes or enemies Calls for patriotism or other cultural assumptions Calls for patriotism or other cultural assumptions Can have positive or negative impact Can have positive or negative impact Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2009

Patterns of Reasoning Reasoning from definition Reasoning from definition Shared understanding Shared understanding Change listeners’ perspectives Change listeners’ perspectives Reasoning from principle Reasoning from principle Deductive reasoning Deductive reasoning General to specific General to specific Reasoning from reality Reasoning from reality Inductive reasoning Inductive reasoning Specific to general Specific to general Reasoning from parallel cases Reasoning from parallel cases Analogical reasoning Analogical reasoning Strategic points of comparison Strategic points of comparison Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2009

Reasoning from Principle General principle = major premise General principle = major premise Specific issue = minor premise Specific issue = minor premise Conclusion drawn from relationship between major and minor premises Conclusion drawn from relationship between major and minor premises Yes, it’s an enthymeme (a form of syllogism.) Yes, it’s an enthymeme (a form of syllogism.) Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2009

Argument from Principle Audience must accept major premise Audience must accept major premise Demonstrate relevance of conditions Demonstrate relevance of conditions Explain relationship between these Explain relationship between these Keep reasoning free from fallacies Keep reasoning free from fallacies Conclusion should offer clear direction Conclusion should offer clear direction Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2009

Reasoning from Reality Requires objective observations Requires objective observations Needs a sufficient number of observations Needs a sufficient number of observations Observations should be recent Observations should be recent Observations should be representative Observations should be representative Observations should be relevant to conclusion Observations should be relevant to conclusion Establish credibility of sources Establish credibility of sources Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2009

Reasoning from Parallel Cases Similar to reasoning from reality Similar to reasoning from reality Ties the unfamiliar to the familiar Ties the unfamiliar to the familiar Concentrates on one similar situation Concentrates on one similar situation Similarities must outweigh dissimilarities Similarities must outweigh dissimilarities Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2009

Interplay of Reasoning Data – facts, examples, expert testimony Data – facts, examples, expert testimony Claim – conclusion drawn from data Claim – conclusion drawn from data Warrant – justification of movement from data to claim Warrant – justification of movement from data to claim Backing – additional support for claim Backing – additional support for claim Reservations – exceptions to claim Reservations – exceptions to claim Qualifiers – possible reservations Qualifiers – possible reservations -- Toulman Format Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2009

Defective Evidence Fallacies Slippery slope fallacy Slippery slope fallacy Confusing fact and opinion Confusing fact and opinion Red herring fallacy Red herring fallacy Myth of the mean Myth of the mean Flawed statistical comparisons Flawed statistical comparisons Defective testimony Defective testimony Inappropriate evidence Inappropriate evidence Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2009

Defective Proof Ad hominem fallacy Ad hominem fallacy Begging the question Begging the question Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2009

Defective Reasoning Shaky principle fallacy Shaky principle fallacy Omitted qualifiers Omitted qualifiers Post hoc fallacy Post hoc fallacy Hasty generalization Hasty generalization Non sequitur fallacy Non sequitur fallacy Faulty analogy Faulty analogy Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2009

Design Fallacies Either-or thinking Either-or thinking Straw man fallacy Straw man fallacy Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2009