Chunyan Shao (Shandong University)

To learn to think logically

 The ability for logical reasoning is a must if you want to do well in analysis to do well in evaluation

 The capacity for consciously making sense of things, for establishing and verifying facts, and changing or justifying practices, institutions, and beliefs based on new or existing information. (Wikipedia)  So we should…  know what things are involved  recognize the facts  be aware of the practices, institutions and beliefs  have a lot of information

 Drawing valid inference through the process of induction, deduction and abduction.  There are three parts involved in reasoning: precondition, rules and conclusion.  Given a precondition, a conclusion, and a rule that the precondition implies the conclusion, they can be explained in the following way:

 It is learning the rule after numerous examples of the conclusion following the precondition. E.g.:  The grass has been wet every time it has rained.  Therefore, if it rains tomorrow, the grass will get wet.  Scientists

 Hasty Generalization 过度概化  A person travels through a town for the first time. He sees 10 people, all of whom children. The person then concludes that there are no adult residents in the town.  A faulty generalization by reaching an inductive generalization based on insufficient evidence— essentially making a hasty conclusion without considering all of the variables.

 McDonald's and KFC offer foods with little nutrition, and thus we cannot expect any fast food restaurant to provide us with nutritious foods.  Sport can help us relax. Sport can exercise our muscles. Also sport improves our ability to fight against disease. Therefore, sport is good for our health.

 Employees are like nails. Just as nails must be hit in the head in order to make them work, so must employees.  Two entities share properties of two or more things, and from this basis inferring that they also share some further property.

 The model of the solar system is similar to that an atom, with planets orbiting the sun like electrons orbiting the nucleus. Electrons can jump from orbit to orbit; so we should study ancient records for sightings of planets jumping from orbit to orbit.  Sam: "I think that people can have some affection for their cultural heritage."  Michelle: "You're just like Hitler!"

 It is using the rule and its precondition to make a conclusion. E.g.:  When it rains, the grass gets wet.  It rained today.  Therefore, the grass is wet.  Mathematicians  All men are mortal.  John is a man.  Therefore, John is mortal.

 Dicto Simpliciter (Unqualified generalization) 草率前提  Exercise is good. Therefore, everyone should exercise.  University students abide by the law.  Girls love talking about dresses.  Going to university is necessary for one to get a good job.  Time is money.

 It is using the conclusion and the rule to support that the precondition could explain the conclusion. E.g.:  When it rains, the grass gets wet.  The grass is wet.  Therefore, it may have rained.  Diagnosticians and detectives

 Let’s not take Lily out for picnic. Each time we take her out, it rains.  Lily has nothing to do with raining. She does not cause raining.  There are too many private cars in the street, and the traffic is serious. Therefore it is the increasing private cars that cause serious traffic jams in big cities.  The new mayor took office last January and crime in the streets has already increased 25 percent. The assumption is that having the new mayor caused the increase in crime.

 If we don't care about the environment, the world will die in 50 years.  There are many in-between procedures to be defined/explained.  It states that a relatively small first step leads to a chain of related events culminating in some significant effect, much like an object given a small push over the edge of a slope sliding all the way to the bottom.  If you study hard, you will get a high score in the final examination.

 If God can do anything, he can make a stone so heavy that he himself cannot lift.

 You must have graded my exam incorrectly. I studied very hard for weeks specifically because I knew my career depended on getting a good grade. If you give me a failing grade I'm ruined!  Someone tries to win support for an argument or idea by exploiting their opponent's feelings of pity or guilt.  "Ladies and gentlemen of the jury, look at this miserable man, in a wheelchair, unable to use his legs. Could such a man really be guilty of embezzlement?"

 If I hadn’t taught you about those fallacies, you would never know what they are about.

 Life is life and fun is fun, but it's all so quiet when the goldfish die.  an argument in which its conclusion does not follow from its premises.  Mary: I wonder how Mrs. Knowles next door is doing. Jim: Did you hear that the convenience store two blocks over got robbed last night? Thieves got away with a small fortune.  Susan is smart; therefore she will receive good grades.  Many smart people do not receive good grades.

 We have only two choices: ban nuclear weapons, or destroy the earth.  In fact, other possibilities exist.  Stating that only two alternatives exist when in fact there are more than two.  "Either the nobles of this country appear wealthy, in which case they can be taxed for good; or they appear poor, in which case they are living frugally and must have immense savings, which can be taxed for good."

 Nine out of ten of my constituents oppose the bill, therefore it is a bad idea.  This fallacy is sometimes committed while trying to convince a person that a widely popular thought is true.  Everyone's doing it.  Google gives more hits when this spelling is applied, therefore this has to be the correct spelling.

 Your exposition is highly correct and valid, but you don't have enough academic certification.  An argument made personally against an opponent, instead of against the opponent's argument.  Attack the messenger, rather than the message.  Candidate George's proposal about zoning is ridiculous. He was caught cheating on his taxes in  What makes you so smart and all-knowing that you can deny God's existence? You haven't even finished school.

 The informal fallacy of presenting an argument that may or may not be logically valid, but fails nonetheless to address the issue in question.  A deliberate attempt to divert a process of enquiry by changing the subject.  Why worry about a few terrorists when we ought to be doing something about acid rain?

 Induction, deduction, abduction  Hasty Generalization False analogy  Dicto Simpliciter Post hoc  Slippery slope  Ad misericordiam  Contradictory premises  Hypothesis contrary to fact Non sequitur  Either…or Bandwagon  Hominem Red Herring