Geology and Nonrenewable Mineral Resources Chapter 12

Core Case Study: Nanotechnology Bottom-up manufacturing Widespread applications Potential risks Need for guidelines and regulations Future applications

Nanosolar Cells Fig. 12-1, p. 261

12-1 What Are the Earth’s Major Geological Processes? Concept 12-1 Gigantic plates in the earth’s crust move very slowly atop the planet’s mantle, and wind and water move matter from place to place across the earth’s surface.

The Earth Is a Dynamic Planet What is geology? Earth’s internal structure Core Mantle Crust

Plate Tectonics Tectonic plates Lithosphere Types of plate boundaries Divergent Convergent Transform fault

Plate Tectonics and Natural Hazards Earthquakes Volcanoes Tsunamis Geologic recycling and biodiversity

Earth’s Crust and Upper Mantle

Abyssal floor Oceanic ridge Abyssal floor Folded mountain belt Volcanoes Abyssal floor Oceanic ridge Abyssal floor Trench Abyssal hills Craton Abyssal plain Oceanic crust (lithosphere) Abyssal plain Continental shelf Continental slope Continental rise Continental crust (lithosphere) Mantle (lithosphere) Mantle (lithosphere) Figure 12.2: Major features of the earth’s crust and upper mantle. The lithosphere, composed of the crust and outermost mantle, is rigid and brittle. The asthenosphere, a zone in the mantle, can be deformed by heat and pressure. Mantle (asthenosphere) Fig. 12-2, p. 263

Plate Tectonics

Oceanic tectonic plate Oceanic tectonic plate Spreading center Ocean trench Oceanic tectonic plate Oceanic tectonic plate Collision between two continents Plate movement Plate movement Tectonic plate Subduction zone Oceanic crust Oceanic crust Continental crust Continental crust Cold dense material falls back through mantle Material cools as it reaches the outer mantle Hot material rising through the mantle Mantle convection cell Figure 12.3: The earth’s crust is made up of a mosaic of huge rigid plates, called tectonic plates, which move around in response to forces in the mantle. See an animation based on this figure at ThomsonNOW. Mantle Two plates move towards each other. One is subducted back into the mantle on a falling convection current. Hot outer core Inner core Fig. 12-3, p. 264

Earth’s Major Tectonic Plates

Fig. 12-4, p. 265 EURASIAN PLATE NORTH AMERICAN ANATOLIAN PLATE PLATE JUAN DE FUCA PLATE CHINA SUBPLATE CARIBBEAN PLATE PHILIPPINE PLATE AFRICAN PLATE ARABIAN PLATE PACIFIC PLATE SOUTH AMERICAN PLATE NAZCA PLATE INDIA-AUSTRALIAN PLATE SOMALIAN SUBPLATE Figure 12.4: The earth’s major tectonic plates. The extremely slow movements of these plates cause them to grind into one another at convergent plate boundaries, move apart from one another at divergent plate boundaries, and slide past one another at transform plate boundaries. Question: What plate are you riding on? See an animation based on this figure at ThomsonNOW. ANTARCTIC PLATE Fig. 12-4, p. 265

The San Andreas Fault Fig. 12-5, p. 265

External Earth Processes Weathering Physical Chemical Biological Erosion Rain, flowing water, wind Glaciers

12-2 What Are Minerals and Rocks and How Are Rocks Recycled? Concept 12-2A Some naturally occurring materials in the earth’s crust can be extracted and processed into useful materials. Concept 12-2B Igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic rocks in the earth’s crust are recycled very slowly by geologic processes.

Nonrenewable Mineral Resources (1) Minerals Mineral resource Fossil fuels Metallic Nonmetallic

Nonrenewable Mineral Resources (2) Identified resources Reserves Potential impact of nanotechnology

Rocks and Minerals Rock Ore Rock cycle Igneous Sedimentary Metamorphic High-grade ore Low-grade ore Rock cycle

The Rock Cycle

Weathering Igneous rock Sedimentary rock Granite, pumice, basalt Erosion Transportation Weathering Deposition Igneous rock Sedimentary rock Granite, pumice, basalt Sandstone, limestone Heat, pressure Cooling Heat, pressure, stress Magma (molten rock) Figure 12.6: Natural capital: the rock cycle is the slowest of the earth’s cyclic processes. Rocks are recycled over millions of years by three processes: melting, erosion, and metamorphism, which produce igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic rocks. Rock from any of these classes can be converted to rock of either of the other two classes, or can be recycled within its own class (Concept 12-2B). Question: What are three ways in which the rock cycle benefits your lifestyle? Melting Metamorphic rock Slate, marble, gneiss, quartzite Fig. 12-6, p. 267

12-3 What Are the Harmful Environmental Effects of Using Mineral Resources? Concept 12-3 Extracting and using mineral resources can disturb the land, erode soils, produce large amounts of solid waste, and pollute the air, water, and soil.

Environmental Impact of Using Mineral Resources (1) High energy use Disturb land Erode soil Produce solid waste

Environmental Impact of Using Mineral Resources (2) Pollute air, water, and soil Total impact may depend on grade of ore

Life Cycle of a Metal Resource

Surface mining Metal ore Separation of ore from gangue Smelting Conversion to product Discarding of product Recycling Figure 12.7: Life cycle of a metal resource. Each step in this process uses large amounts of energy and produces some pollution and waste. Fig. 12-7, p. 268

Surface mining Metal ore Separation of ore from gangue Smelting Discarding of product Recycling Melting metal Conversion to product Figure 12.7: Life cycle of a metal resource. Each step in this process uses large amounts of energy and produces some pollution and waste. Stepped Art Fig. 12-7, p. 268

Environmental Effects of Using Mineral and Energy Resources Fig. 12-8, p. 268

Extracting Mineral Deposits Surface mining Subsurface mining Overburden Spoils

Mining Methods Open-pit mining Strip mining Area strip mining Contour strip mining Mountaintop removal

Open-pit Mining Fig. 12-9, p. 269

Strip Mining Fig. 12-10, p. 269

Contour Strip Mining

Undisturbed land Overburden Pit Bench Spoil banks Highwall Coal seam Figure 12.11: Natural capital degradation: contour strip mining of coal used in hilly or mountainous terrain. Spoil banks Fig. 12-11, p. 270

Mountaintop Mining Fig. 12-12, p. 270

Harmful Environmental Effects of Mining Disruption of land surface Subsidence Toxic-laced mining wastes Acid mine drainage Air pollution

Harmful Environmental Effects of Removing Metals from Ores Ore mineral – desired metal Gangue – waste material Smelting Air polluting by-products Chemical removal processes Toxic holding ponds

12-4 How Long Will Mineral Resources Last? Concept 12-4 An increase in the price of a scarce mineral resource can lead to increased supplies and more efficient use of the mineral, but there are limits to this effect.

Uneven Distribution of Mineral Resources Abundant minerals Scarce minerals Exporters and importers Strategic metal resources Economic and military strength U.S. dependency – four critical minerals Sources?

Supplies of Mineral Resources Available supply and use Economic depletion Six choices after depletion Recycle, reuse, waste less, use less, find a substitute, do without Depletion time

Depletion Curves for a Nonrenewable Resource

Present Depletion time A Depletion time B Depletion time C Mine, use, throw away; no new discoveries; rising prices Recycle; increase reserves by improved mining technology, higher prices, and new discoveries B Recycle, reuse, reduce consumption; increase reserves by improved mining technology, higher prices, and new discoveries Production C Figure 12.13: Depletion curves for a nonrenewable resource (such as aluminum or copper) using three sets of assumptions. Dashed vertical lines represent times when 80% depletion occurs. Present Depletion time A Depletion time B Depletion time C Time Fig. 12-13, p. 272

Effect of Market Prices on Supplies of Nonrenewable Resources Role of economics in mining Standard economic theory Limited free market in developed countries Subsides, taxes, regulations, import tariffs Economic problems of developing new mines

Mining Lower-grade Ores Improved equipment and technologies Limiting factors Cost Supplies of freshwater Environmental impacts Biomining In-situ mining Genetic engineering

Ocean Mining (1) Minerals from seawater Minerals for ocean sediments Hydrothermal deposits Manganese-rich nodules

Ocean Mining (2) Mining issues in international waters Environmental issues

12-5 How Can We Use Mineral Resources More Sustainably? Concept 12-5 We can try to find substitutes for scarce resources, recycle and reuse minerals, reduce resource waste, and convert the wastes from some businesses into raw materials for other businesses.

Finding Substitutes and Alternatives for Scarce Mineral Resources Materials revolution Ceramics and plastics Limitations Recycle and reuse Less environmental impact

Using Nonrenewable Resources More Sustainably Decrease use and waste 3M Company Pollution Prevention Pays (3P) program Economic and environmental benefits of cleaner production

Sustainable Use of Nonrenewable Minerals Fig. 12-14, p. 275

Case Study: Industrial Ecosystems (1) Mimic nature to deal with wastes – biomimicry Waste outputs become resource inputs Recycle and reuse Resource exchange webs

Case Study: Industrial Ecosystems (2) Reclaiming brownfields Industrial ecology Ecoindustrial revolution

An Industrial Ecosystem

Sulfuric acid producer Sludge Pharmaceutical plant Local farmers Sludge Greenhouses Waste heat Waste heat Waste heat Waste heat Fish farming Surplus natural gas Oil refinery Electric power plant Fly ash Surplus sulfur Waste calcium sulfate Figure 12.15: Solutions: an industrial ecosystem in Kalundborg, Denmark, reduces waste production by mimicking a food web in natural ecosystems. The wastes of one business become the raw materials for another. Question: Is there an industrial ecosystem near where you live or go to school? If not, why not? Surplus natural gas Waste heat Cement manufacturer Sulfuric acid producer Wallboard factory Area homes Fig. 12-15, p. 276

Sulfuric acid producer Surplus sulfur Greenhouses Waste heat Pharmaceutical plant Waste heat Local farmers Sludge Fish farming Waste heat Oil refinery Waste heat Surplus natural gas Electric power plant Cement manufacturer Fly ash Sulfuric acid producer Surplus sulfur Wallboard factory Waste calcium sulfate Surplus natural gas Area homes Waste heat Stepped Art Fig. 12-15, p. 276

Animation: Geological Forces PLAY ANIMATION

Animation: Plate Margins PLAY ANIMATION

Animation: Sulfur Cycle PLAY ANIMATION

Animation: Resources Depletion and Degradation PLAY ANIMATION

Video: Continental Drift PLAY VIDEO

Video: Asteroid Menace PLAY VIDEO

Video: Indonesian Earthquake PLAY VIDEO

Video: Tsunami Alert Testing PLAY VIDEO

Video: Mount Merapi Volcano Eruption PLAY VIDEO