Cultural Transformations: Religion & Science 1450-1750 Ways of the World Chapter 15

Cultural Trends The Early Modern Era gave birth to two intersecting cultural trends: Spread of Christianity to Asians, Africans, & Native Americans Emergence of a modern scientific outlook that sharply challenged Christianity These trends connected distant peoples Christianity became a worldwide religion Firmly est. in the Americas & Philippines Modestly est. in Siberia, China, Japan, India Not at all est. in the Islamic world Science became a new and competing worldview

Cultural Trends Though Europeans were the crucial player in these two trends, they were not acting alone: Asians, Africans, & Native Americans determined the success of Christianity in new cultural environments Science emerged in a worldwide context Cultural interactions were a two way street

Globalization of Christianity At the beginning of the Early Modern Era Christianity was mainly limited to Europe Christianity was seriously divided: Roman Catholics in Western & Central Europe Eastern Orthodox in Eastern Europe & Russia Christianity was on the defensive against the spread of Islam: Muslims controlled the Holy Land by 1300 Ottoman Empire seized Constantinople in 1453

Protestant Reformation Began in 1517 when German priest Martin Luther issued his 95 Theses Led to debate about abuses within the Roman Catholic Church Luxurious life of the pope Corruption & immorality of some of the clergy Selling indulgences

Protestant Reformation Revolutionary for challenging the authority of the Roman Catholic Church & for Luther’s differing view on how to achieve salvation Luther believed in salvation by faith alone Neither good works nor sacraments effect eternal destiny The source of belief & religious authority was the Bible itself interpreted by the individual

Protestant Reformation Luther’s ideas led to a massive schism in the world of Catholicism: Some kings & princes find this is justification for independence from the Church; also to gain land & tax money previously held by the church Middle-class urban dwellers found social legitimacy in the Reformation’s idea of equal merit of all vocations Lower class saw the Reformation’s challenge to authority as their opportunity to express their opposition to the established social structure

The Reformation and Women A large number of women were drawn to Protestantism, but did not have a greater role in the church compared to Catholicism: End to the veneration of Mary & female saints Closed convents Protestant stress on the importance of reading the Bible for yourself stimulated education & literacy for women Protestantism also emphasized the role of women as wives & mothers Women had little opportunity to use their newfound literacy & skills outside of the home

Protestant Reformation Spread quickly within & beyond Germany largely due to the printing press Continued to split into distinctive sects as it spread through France, Switzerland, & England None had allegiance to the pope

Protestant Reformation Divided societies + fractured political systems + religious differences = violence! 1562-1598: France was torn apart by violence b/t Catholics & Protestant Huguenots Edict of Nantes: guaranteed religious toleration for French Protestants 1618-1648: 30 Years’ War engulfed most of Europe & was massively destructive to property & populations Peace of Westphalia: ended the conflict, redrew some state boundaries, each European state was sovereign & had the authority to control religious affairs in its territory

Counter Reformation 1545-1563: Council of Trent Catholic Church reaffirmed its unique doctrines & practices Authority of the pope Priestly celibacy Monastic life Veneration of saints & relics Importance of good works Corrected abuses & corruption Cracked down on dissidents Renewed focus on individual spirituality & piety Creation of new religious orders like the Jesuits A brotherhood of priests committed to the renewal & extension of the church & its beliefs

Protestant Reformation Though the Reformation was religious in nature, it encouraged a skeptical attitude towards authority & tradition throughout Europe. Skepticism & independent thought led to questioning all conventional religion & opened space for new directions in European intellectual life Scientific Revolution & Enlightenment

Christianity: Outward Bound Christianity both motivated & benefited from European political & economic expansion Globalization of Christianity was supported by the creation of empires Settlers & traders brought their faith with them Attempted to replicate it in their new homes

Spread of Christianity Protestants in North America Catholics Emphasis was on education, moral purity, & civic responsibility No tolerance for competing faiths Little interest in converting natives – just pushing them off of their ancestral homelands Mainly responsible for spreading the Christian message beyond Europe through organized monastic orders, trade, & conquest: Dominicans, Franciscans, Jesuits & Portuguese in Asia & Africa Spanish & French in the Americas Eastern Orthodox in Siberia & the Russian Empire

Conversion& Adaptation in Spanish America Europeans saw their military & economic success in the Americas as a demonstration of the power & superiority of their God Native Americans mostly agreed Conquering people like the Aztecs & Incas had always imposed their gods on defeated peoples, so this imposition of Christianity was not a new practice Millions accepted baptism Europeans claimed to have exclusive religious truth & sought to destroy local gods, shrines, temples, etc.

Conversion& Adaptation in Spanish America High cost of conversion for native women: Women who were previously shamans, priests, or other religious figures in their native religion had no role in the Catholic Church Convent life was reserved for Spanish women in the Americas

Conversion& Adaptation in Spanish America Some resistance to Christianity was seen, but was quickly crushed by the colonial powers More common were efforts to blend native traditions with Christian beliefs Through these efforts, distinct forms Andean & Mexican Christianity emerged Interpretation of Christian beliefs within the framework & patterns of local culture Not a copy of Spanish Christianity

Christianity in China China encountered Christianity during the powerful Ming and Qing Dynasties Unlike the Americas, China’s political independence & cultural integrity were never threatened by European missionaries & traders Missionaries in China needed permission to be there & sought to convert the elites, not the masses

Christianity in China Initially emphasized exchanging ideas & learning from Chinese culture Learning Chinese Thoroughly digesting Confucian works Dressing like the Chinese Carried the secular knowledge of Europe with them to an audience of curious Chinese scholars Science Technology Geography Mapmaking

Christianity in China A modest number of Chinese scholars converted to Christianity Attracted by the lives of the missionaries & an interest in Western knowledge Missionaries initially found favor in the Emperor’s court Knowledge & skills considered useful

Christianity in China Missionaries had limited success overall 200k-300k converts from 1550-1800 from a population of roughly 300 million .06% - 0.1% of the population Christianity offered little the Chinese needed “all or nothing faith” meant converts would have to abandon many aspects of traditional Chinese culture

Issues with Christianity in China Missionaries lost favor with the emperor when the pope claimed authority over Chinese Christians Forbade ancestor worship & sacrifices to Confucius These declarations were a challenge to the emperor’s authority over his own people & an insult to Chinese culture

Further Issues with Christianity in China Missionaries were willing to work with the Qing Viewed by scholars & the elite as uncivilized figures whose rule over China was illigitimate “miracle worker” reputation damaged their scholarly/scientific credibility Communion = cannibalism Miracles & supernatural beliefs were fit only for the uneducated masses Maybe they were spies & revolutionaries

A New Way of Thinking: The Birth of Modern Science Scientific Revolution was a vast intellectual & cultural transformation in Europe from the mid16th – early 18th cent No longer reliant on the Bible, the church, ancient philosophers, or the wisdom of cultural traditions for knowledge about the natural world Knowledge acquired through careful observation, controlled experiments, & the formulation of general laws expressed in mathematical terms

A New Way of Thinking: The Birth of Modern Science Europe’s rebirth & development as a fragmented society gave rise to unique conditions favorable to science Legal systems guaranteed some independence for a variety of institutions Autonomy of universities gave scholars the freedom to pursue their studies w/o interference from the church or state Most major figures of the Sci. Revolution had been trained in & affiliated with these universtities

A New Way of Thinking: The Birth of Modern Science Western Europe was in a in unique position to draw on knowledge of other cultures Islamic World Medicine Mathematics Astronomy Translation of ancient Greek classic works 16th century Globalization Massive exchange of information through a new awareness of the wider world Land, people, animals, plants, etc.

A New Way of Thinking: The Birth of Modern Science Skepticism about established views rooted in the Reformation contributed too Challenges to authority Encouragement of mass literacy Value of secular professions

A New Way of Thinking: The Birth of Modern Science Prior to the Sci. Revolution, the European worldview was derived mainly from Aristotle & Ptolemy Sci. Revolution fundamentally challenged this view of the universe Initial breakthrough came from Nicolaus Copernicus in 1543 Heliocentric universe

A New Way of Thinking: The Birth of Modern Science Culmination of the Sci. Revolution came from Sir Isaac Newton Laws of motion & mechanics Radical view that the heavens & earth obeyed natural laws Universe functions according to scientific principles that can be defined mathematically Knowledge is obtained through human reason Observation Deduction Experimentation

A New Way of Thinking: The Birth of Modern Science Mostly male scientists – women excluded from universities A few aristocratic women were able to contribute through their male relatives Catholic Church strongly opposed to developments of the Sci. Revolution Opposed their teachings Seen as another attack on their authority None of the early scientists rejected Christianity Galileo proclaimed their compatibility Newton was a serious Biblical scholar who saw no contradiction b/t science & Christianity

Science & Enlightenment Sci. Revolution spread to a wider European audience in the 1700s Printing techniques/printing press Popular press (newspapers, magazines) Growing literacy Scientific societies

Science & Enlightenment Guiding principles of the Sci. Revolution led to the Enlightenment Knowledge is rooted in human reason, is skeptical of authority, & is expressed in natural laws These principles could be applied to human affairs “Enlightenment” was to discover ways in which humans could govern themselves more effectively Philosophers of the Enlightenment shared a belief in the power of knowledge to transform societies

Science & Enlightenment Enlightenment philosophy aimed at: Divine right of kings Aristocratic privilege Superstition, ignorance, corruption of established religion John Locke Natural rights Principles of constitutional government Voltaire Religious tolerance

Women & Enlightenment