Management Theory and the Management of School Library Programs 1 Management Theory and the Management of School Library Programs Management is the business of getting things done through and with people in formally organized groups. Management Is: Planning Staffing Leading Controlling

Two Schools of Thought 3 Administrative Management Classical/Scientific Management Administrative Management Management Science (Quantitative Perspective) Operations Management Behavioral Management, 1930- Human Relations Movement/Psychological Organizational Behavior (Behavioral Management) Integrating Approaches

4 Rise of Machines gave way to work measurement This was the beginning of the Industrial Revolution Management needed to know how much a “machine” could produce. Machine= hammer Man Entire factory Room full of clerks Etc. Management Objective—to increase productivity No formal method for calculating outcomes Put Man to work Keep them working Don’t let them slack off See how much they turn out in a week This will be about what can be produced Becomes the standard for weekly production rate (guestimation) Pay workers extra to produce as much as they can

From Classical to Scientific Management (1890-1940) 5 From Classical to Scientific Management (1890-1940) Efficiency, efficiency! Classical: Based on Early labor practices of Industrial Revolution Scientific: Taylor’s principles to increase efficiency Put Man to work; Keep them working. Don’t let them slack off Study the way the job is performed; determine new ways See how much they turn out in a week to determine what can be produced Codify the new method into rules This becomes the standard for weekly production rate (guestimation) Select workers whose skills match the rules Pay workers extra to produce as much as they can (piecemeal pay) Establish a fair level of performance and pay for higher performance (Taylor, 1911. Principles of Scientific Management) Turn of 20th Century: Frederick Winslow Taylor Studied organization as a machine Individual work tasks seen as gears in a machine Studies done at: Midvale Steel (2000 workers) Bethlehem Iron (4000) Increase efficiency from specialized physical work through pre-described activities ONE BEST WAY

Scientific Management Theory 1890-1940 Soldiering More productive = fewer workers Non-incentive wage system Rule-of-thumb “Soldiering" is the act of 'loafing' both at an individual level and "systematic soldiering". Taylor described the main reasons that workers were not performing optimally: Why workers do not perform optimally: 1. Workers’ belief that that increased production would lead to fewer workers. 2. Inefficiencies within the management control system such as poorly designed incentive schemes and hourly pay rates that are not linked to productivity. 3. Poor design of the performance of the work by rule-of-thumb.

Taylor and Scientific Management 7 Taylor and Scientific Management Taylor Human and machine are similar Effiency, effiency! Taylor developed his theory of scientific management as he worked his way up from a laborer to a works manager in US steelworks. He worked on Time-Motion Studies Compartmentalized activities into elements Element analysis…key to development of standard data….manuals of standards….description of every job…(there were no photocopiers…elaborate filing system) Detailed process descriptions

Time Studies 8 Science of Shoveling: Standardized Tools PIG Iron 12 1/2 tons of pig iron per day increased to 47 1/2 tons per day, Experiments to determine the amount of resting that was necessary, the worker's manager could determine the optimal timing of lifting and resting so that the worker could move the 47 1/2 tons per day without tiring. Not all workers were physically capable of moving 47 1/2 tons per day; Suggests that workers should be selected according to how well they are suited for a particular job. Shoveling Could greatly increase productivity…at Bethlehem Steel productivity increased by 350% and reduced workers by 70% just by increasing the shovel size… 21 pounds was the ideal size From Taylor’s observations he made 3 assumptions: Man is a rational economic animal concerned with maximizing his economic gain. MONEY MATTERS People respond as individuals, not as groups. PERSONAL GAIN. People can be treated in a standardized fashion, like machines: Pay=amount produced (piece rates) Workers who did not deliver paid less Workers who did more paid more. Science of Shoveling: Standardized Tools Pig Iron Work Study, 1898

4 Objectives of Scientific Management Development of a science for each element of work Classify, tabulate, reduce to rules, laws, formulas Scientific selection Then train, teach and develop Cooperation In order to make sure work is being done according to scientific principals Division of work Equal division, managers to do what they are best suited to do, workers likewise He saw his principals as a win-win situation for workers and managers…mutually dependent on each other…practical tools for management…he made management a profession…. His framework for organization was: clear delineation of authority responsibility (Lines of Authority) separation of planning from operations incentive schemes for workers task specialization Management Principals: Hierarchical systems based on principles of specialization, centralization and formality. Specialized tasks exist in specialized departments, with responsibility formally designated. Span of control is narrow and a unitary line of command is in place. Taylor’s efforts were resented by unions and managers alike. He advocated assigning supervisors by function. One for training, one for discipline, etc. He had a limited view on motivation and group dynamics The four objectives of management under scientific management were: The development of a science for each element of a man's work to replace the old rule-of-thumb methods. The scientific selection, training and development of workers instead of allowing them to choose their own tasks and train themselves as best they could. The development of a spirit of hearty cooperation between workers and management to ensure that work would be carried out in accordance with scientifically devised procedures. The division of work between workers and the management in almost equal shares, each group taking over the work for which it is best fitted instead of the former condition in which responsibility largely rested with the workers. Self-evident in this philosophy are organizations arranged in a hierarchy, systems of abstract rules and impersonal relationships between staff. Implications of Taylor’s theory for managing behavior at work: Main motivation is high wages, linked to output Manager’s job is to tell employees what to do A worker’s job is to do what they are told and get paid accordingly. Benefits??? Drawbacks???

Scientific management - own decision = Skilled = own decision Scientific management - own decision = unskilled worker trained for series of tasks. Prior to scientific management work was performed by skilled craftsmen that had learned their trade through lengthy apprenticeships. They made their own decisions about how the work was going to be done. Scientific management took away much of this decision making. A skilled job was broken down into specified tasks that could be drilled down to the routine and taught to an unskilled worker. Taylor became interested in improving worker productivity early in his career when he observed the inefficiencies of workers working in the steel industry. He saw that workers were purposely operating well below their capacity. He called this soldering and found three causes:

Psychology of Management Cheaper by the Dozen? Time and Motion Studies Break down each action into its elements (“therbligs”) Find better ways to perform it 3. Reorganize each action to be more efficient Click: Psychology of Management Click: Gilbreth’s Frank and Lillian Gilbreth around 1930+ ClickCheaper by the Dozen Montclair, Lillian carried on after Frank died interested in motion studies…actually used motion picture/film to study movement in order to better understand the best way to get the job done using standard motion. Work dissatisfaction studies Behavioral approach Problem of lack of interest in workers standardization and method study…laws of human motion…rest allowance to allow recovery from fatigue…cheaper by the dozen From 1922 continuing into the 1970s. growth of social sciences influencing work and workers changed the approach to the way the work situation was seen. Managers dealt with “people” aspects of their organization. The “group” played a more significant role. Frank and Lillian Gilbreth and family (minus one)

Backlash against efficiency 12 Backlash against efficiency Interlocking dependencies: Have mechanisms built into their structure that are designed to stabilize their internal environments. Sub-systems working in concert cannot change without affecting something else. What is the ’hidden” face of power? Charlie Chapin in “Modern Times”, 1939 Food for thought: How are schools locked into Taylor’s views?

Administrative Management (1930-1950) 13 Max Weber’s concept of bureaucracy Authority is the power to hold people accountable Positions held based on performance, not social contacts Lines of authority clearly identified Rules, standard operating procedures and norms are used to determine how things work Efficiency + Effectiveness Bureaucratic Organizations – Max Weber around 1910 +/- Sociological view Coined the term “bureaucracy” Studied hierarchy of church, business, military, government Concerned with efficiency to improve function as a reform of favoritism, patronage Characteristics of bureaucratic system: Schools/ Libraries / Departments of Education tend to be bureaucratic Take a look at your school’s webpage…where is the presence of the library?

Bureaucracy Written, well-ordered rules and procedures Promote continuity Produces minimum effort, discourages creativity Impersonal application of policies Promotion based on seniority Dissention if supervisor is not qualified Merit or promotion based on technical competence Hierarchical levels of authority Line/staff relation Promotes discipline Communication blocks exist top down Separation of interests and property effort-saving rules and equal treatment clear division of labor, specialization leave no office uncontrolled managers to have technical training everything to be recorded & filed, red tape Forms of Authority an appeal to emotions and affections, charisma the sanctification of tradition, habit valuation of something because it embodies an ultimate value or a disinterested, professional attitude of valuation toward a thing for its own sake

How Are Schools Bureaucracies 15 How Are Schools Bureaucracies Written rules? System of task Relationships? A Bureaucracy should have Hierarchy of Authority? Impersonal application of policies Promotion based on seniority Dissention if supervisor is not qualified Merit or promotion based on technical competence Hierarchical levels of authority Line/staff relation Promotes discipline Communication blocks exist top down Separation of interests and property Written, well-ordered rules and procedures Promote continuity Produces minimum effort, discourages creativity Separation of interests and property Fair evaluation and reward?

Management Science: The Quantitative Perspective 16 Management Science: The Quantitative Perspective Uses rigorous quantitative techniques to maximize resources Quantitative management: utilizes linear programming, modeling, simulation systems Operations management: techniques to analyze all aspects of the production system

Total Quality Management (TQM) 17 Total Quality Management (TQM) Total Quality Management (TQM): Focuses on improved quality Communication is essential Recognition is achieved in a culture of integrity an ethics, leadership, teamwork, and training.

Continuous Improvement 18 Continuous Improvement Planning Control Improvement

19 Taylorism vs. TQM

Participatory Management 20 Participatory Management Customer-base decision making vs. top down authority

Discussion: Scientific Management in Schools? Thinking Points: How do our schools and school systems resemble scientific management? How does this affect their reason for being, or what they are supposed to do? What is the effect on teachers? Administrators? Students? School libraries? Relationships? Innovation and change? How are schools managed in the scientific management approach? What are the implications for library media centers?