1 C: formic acid, methanoic acid 2 C’s: acetic acid, ethanoic acid 3 C’s: propionic acid, propanoic acid 4 C’s: butyric acid, butanoic acid Carboxyli c acids

Aspirin : Should you take a daily dose? (Prostaglandins F 2  ) Prostaglandins are involved in the regulation of a variety of physiological phenomena, including inflammation, blood clotting, and the induction of labor. Aspirin act by blocking the biosynthesis of prostaglandins in the cell.

cyclooxygenase

Carboxylic Acid Carboxylate ion

Electron-withdrawing groups stabilize a conjugate base, making a carboxylic acid more acidic.

Electron-donating groups destabilize a conjugate base, making a carboxylic acid less acidic.

Alpha Hydroxy Acids in Cosmetics

Carboxylic acids’ Derivatives

Est ers

Preparing Biodiesel

Preparing Soaps

Ami des

(cell wall transamidase)

Amines RNH 2, ArNH 2 Primary, 1 o Amines NH 3 + H 2 O NH OH - butylamine R 2 NH, Ar 2 NH Secondary, 2 o Amines R 3 N, Ar 3 N Tertiary, 3 o Amines N-methylpropylamine N,N-dimethylethylamine

สารประกอบเอมีนที่มีฤทธิ์เป็นยา

NaNO 2 inhibits the growth of Clostridium botulinum.

Think like a wise man but express yourself like an ordinary one. Quote of The Day จงคิดเหมือนปราชญ์ แต่แสดงออกเหมือน สามัญชน

Stereochemistry is the study of the three-dimensional structure of molecules. Stereoisomers Stereoisomers : Isomers that have the same bonding sequence but differ in the orientation of their atoms in space. Isomers : Different compounds that have the same molecular formula.

 Late 50’s, thalidomide was prescribed as an analgesic for morning sickness and used extensively in Europe and Canada despite strong warning that it not be used by pregnant women.  By 1961, it was recognized as the cause for numerous birth defects (~7- 10,000 in 28 countries).

Mir ror 180° rotation

คู่ enantiomers

 Each enantiomer of a stereoisomeric pair is optically active and has an equal but opposite-in-sign specific rotation.  One enantiomer will rotate polarized light in a clockwise direction, termed dextrorotatory (+), and its mirror-image partner in a counter-clockwise manner, termed levorotatory (–).  It is common practice to convert the observed rotation, α, to a specific rotation, [ α ].

 Although two enantiomers have identical boiling points and melting points, they rotate the plane of polarized light in opposite directions. A polarimeter is used to measure the optical rotations of enantiomers. (

Specific rotation, [  ] = amount (degrees) that a substance rotates plane polarized light expressed in a standard form.

Carvone from caraway: [ α ] D = +62.5º Carvone from spearmint: [ α ] D = –62.5º Lactic acid from muscle tissue: [ α ] D = +2.5º Lactic acid from sour milk: [ α ] D = –2.5º

How can one identify enantiomerism? Chiral = Objects that are different from theirs mirror image; i.e. golf clubs, scissors; enantiomers are chiral. Achiral = Objects that are identical with theirs mirror image; i.e. a pencil, a T-shirt. All objects may be classified with respect to chirality (from the Greek cheir = hand):

Achiral molecules have either one or both of the following:  Plane of symmetry  Center of symmetry Chiral molecule : (R)-lactic acid Achiral molecule : water Water (H 2 O)

Chiral molecules have chiral center (or stereo or stereogenic center): an atom attached to 4 different atoms or groups. (chiral carbon)

Designating the Configuration of Stereogenic Centers The CIP system of nomenclature. (R. S. Cahn, C. K. Ingold and V. Prelog)  Each stereogenic center in a molecule is assigned a prefix (R or S), according to whether its configuration is right- or left- handed.  The symbol R comes from the Latin rectus for right, and S from the Latin sinister for left.

The assignment of the prefixes depends on the application of two rules: The Sequence Rule The Viewing Rule Right-HandedLeft-Handed

The Sequence Rule Assign sequence priorities to the four substituents by looking at the atoms attached directly to the chiral stereogenic carbon atom. The higher the atomic number of the immediate substituent atom, the higher the priority; H– < C– < N– < O– < Cl–. If two substituents have the same immediate substituent atom, evaluate atoms progressively further away from the chiral center until a difference is found. i.e. CH 3 – < C 2 H 5 – < ClCH 2 – < BrCH 2 – < CH 3 O–.

If double or triple bonded groups are encountered as substituents, they are treated as an equivalent set of single- bonded atoms. i.e. C 2 H 5 – < CH 2 =CH– < HC≡C–

The Viewing Rule The chiral center must be viewed from the side opposite the lowest priority group. Numbering the substituent groups from 1 to 4, with 1 being the highest and 4 the lowest in priority sequence, and put a viewers eye on the side opposite substituent #4. If the progression from 1 to 3 is clockwise, the configuration at the stereocenter is R. Conversely the counterclockwised progression is assigned as S.

Assign Priorities Twist the lowest priority to the back Rotate Priorities

2-Bromobutane (S)-2-Bromobutane Priorities View & Assign

If you have troubles looking at the stereocenter, try Fischer Projections.

1) Rotation on page 180 ˚ is allowed for Fischer projection. Only two kinds of motions are allowed for Fischer projection. 2) One group can be held steady while the other three rotate in either a clockwise or a clockwise direction.

Assigning R, S configurations to Fischer projections. Assign priorities to the four substituents in the usual way. Perform one of the two allowed motions to place the group of lowest (4 th ) priority at the top or bottom of the Fischer projection if it is necessary. Determine the direction of rotation in going from priority 1 to 2 to 3, and assign R (clockwise) or S (counterclockwise).

Compounds Having Two or More Stereogenic Centers Stereocenter 1 Stereocenter 2 (1R), (2S)-(-)-Ephedrine adrenalin e

(+)-Pseudoephedrine and (-)- Pseudoephedrine are diastereomers of (+)- Ephedrine.

Diastereomers Stereoisomers that are not mirror images of each other. Diastereomers have similar chemical properties. Diastereomers have different physical properties: melting points, boiling points, solubities in solvent, etc. Diastereomers can be separated by fractional distillation, or crystallization.

Diaster eomers

Enantiomers: non-superimposable (different) mirror images; most of chemical and physical properties are identical. Diastereomers: are stereoisomers that are not mirror images (all stereoisomers except enantiomers) and have different chemical and physical properties.

Cahn-Ingold-Prelog R/S notation = Specifies absolute configuration of a chiral center; there is no correspondence between R and + or S and – Relationships Between Stereoisomers Stereoisomers Enantiomeric withDiastereomeric with (1R), (2S)-(-)-Ephedrine(1S), (2R)-(+)-Ephedrine(1S), (2S)-(+)- Pseudoephedrine (1R), (2R)-(-)- Pseudoephedrine and

(+)-Tartaric Acid:[α] D = +12ºm.p. 170 ºC (–)-Tartaric Acid:[α] D = –12ºm.p. 170 ºC meso-Tartaric Acid:[α] D = 0ºm.p. 140 ºC

Meso Isomer: an achiral molecule with 2 or more chiral centers and an internal plane of symmetry; the molecule is achiral.

Number of stereoisomers = a molecule with n stereogenic centers (and for which a meso isomer isn’t possible) will have 2 n stereoisomers.

Resolution of Racemic Mixtures There are two basic ways that one can separate the enantiomers in a racemic mixture: Biological Resolution : Using a microbe which metabolizes one specific enantiomer leaving the other alone. Chemical Resolution : The racemate is converted to two diastereoisomers. Once separated the diasteriosomeric forms are converted back to enantiomers in separate containers.

A competely unambiguous system, based on a set of group priority rules, assigns a Z (German, zusammen for together) or E (German, entgegen for opposite) to designate the stereoisomers. Z is equivalent to cis and E is equivalent to trans. E isomer Z isomer

One learns one’s most valuable lessons through hardships. ชีวิตจะได้รับบทเรียนที่ มีค่ามากที่สุดท่ามกลาง ความทุกข์ยาก Today’s Quote