chapter 1 Fundamental Concepts

Characteristics of Motor Development Change in movement behavior Continuous Age-related Sequential Underlying process(es)

Related Areas of Study Motor learning: relatively permanent gains in motor skill capability associated with practice or experience Motor control: the neural, physical, and behavioral aspects of movement (Schmidt & Lee, 1999)

Related Terms Physical growth: quantitative increase in size or body mass (Timiras, 1972) Physical maturation: qualitative advance in biological makeup –Cell, organ, or system advancement in biochemical composition (Teeple, 1978) Aging: process occurring with the passage of time, leading to loss of adaptability or full function and eventually to death (Spirduso, 1995)

Constraints Limit or discourage certain movements at the same time that they permit or encourage other movements “Shape” movement

Newell’s Model of Constraints

Individual Constraints Exist within the body Structural constraints: related to the body’s structure –Height –Muscle mass Functional constraints: related to behavioral function –Attention –Motivation

Environmental Constraints Exist outside the body (properties of the world around us) Global, not task specific Physical –Gravity –Surfaces Sociocultural –Gender roles

Task Constraints External to the body Related specifically to tasks or skills –Goal of task –Rules guiding task performance –Equipment

Research Study Designs Typical in Development Longitudinal –An individual or a group is observed over time. –They can require lengthy observation time. Cross-Sectional –Individuals or groups of different ages are observed for short period of time. –Change is inferred, not actually observed. Sequential, or Mixed Longitudinal –Involves mini-longitudinal studies with overlapping ages.

Research Study Designs Typical in Development Longitudinal –An individual or a group is observed over time. –They can require lengthy observation time. Cross-Sectional –Individuals or groups of different ages are observed. –Change is inferred, not actually observed. Sequential, or Mixed Longitudinal –Involves mini-longitudinal studies with overlapping ages.

A Model of Sequential Research Design

A Paradox in Development Universality –Individuals in a species show great similarity in their development. Variability –Individual differences exist.

chapter 2 Theoretical Perspectives in Motor Development

Ecological Perspective Basic tenet: interrelationship of individual, environment, and task drives development –Importance of multiple systems Decisions of the higher brain centers are reduced because perception of the environment is direct and muscle can self- assemble into functional groups. Two branches exist: –Dynamic systems –Perception–action

Dynamic Systems Theory advocated in the early 1980s by Peter Kugler, Scott Kelso, and Michael Turvey, among others. Body systems spontaneously self-organize. Body systems, performer’s environment, and task demands interact. (continued)

Dynamic Systems (continued) Some systems may develop more slowly than others in the young or degrade more rapidly in the old and thus control the rate of development or change. –Rate limiter – an individual constraint that “limits the rate” at which a motor skill is achieved Qualitative and discontinuous change is characteristic of development. Change occurs across the life span.

Dynamic Systems: Graphing Change Adapted from Thelen, Ulrich, & Jensen, 1989

Perception–Action Theory based on the 1960s and 1970s writing of J.J. Gibson. An affordance is the function an environmental object provides to an individual. –Characteristics define objects’ meanings. –Object functions are based on individuals’ intrinsic dimensions (body scaled) rather than extrinsic, objective dimensions.