Diglossia and Bilingualism

Language Contact Reviewed Pidgins Language Shift Lingua Franca Both Languages survive: Code-mixing, Diglossia and Bilingualism

Language Choice Frederick the Great of Prussia (Germany) “I speak _____________ to my ambassadors _________ to my accountant _________ to God _________ to my mistress and German to my ___________

continued Many people have an extensive linguistic repertoire Zuleikha is a 40 year Malay housewife who uses Terengganu Malay (?) , Standard Malay (?), Standard Malaysian English (?), Cantonese and Classical Arabic

continued What language does she use when talking to God, spouse, relatives in Selangor or TGU, children, spouse (American), vegetable seller, doctor, office staff (private or govt.), friends ? Why?

Domains Many people speak several languages, dialects or accents Different varieties used in different situations (domains) School, business, work, crime, worship, family Often strictly segregated

Diglossia (languages, dialects, accents) Paraguay Spanish for higher education, official business, religion – 60% Guarani (or another indigenous language) for family activities, humour, fighting – 90% Many people speak both – 50% The elite and the poor and remote are monolingual

continued But 2 codes are not mixed Guarani has official status but largely symbolic Communicative competence requires knowing when to use the right code Not to know one could be a serious disadvantage

Continued Nigeria (south) – English used in school and for ceremonial occasions – even if everyone understands Igbo or another language London – exaggerated local accent + taboo words for football chants/songs – not used in other domains England and Europe - local dialects in writing/drama/song nearly always humorous or literary

Theory of Diglossia Ferguson 1960s Everybody speaks two languages or dialects Used in different situations Not mixed Codes may be distinct languages (South America,) or related (Indonesia) or dialects (Malaysia) Or ? (SW Asia & N Africa

continued Standard German and Swiss German German and Hungarian in Oberwart Hindi and northern Indian languages Pilipino and other languages English and Bantu languages in S Africa

continued Cantonese and Mandarin in Singapore French and Haitian Patois English and Jamaican Creole English and French in 12th century England (why do sheep, cows and deer become mutton, beef and venison when they are dead and cooked? Why is fish always fish?)

High and Low varieties High (H) and Low (L) varieties may be language or dialect May have different lexis, syntax, morphology, and/or phonology Have different status Are not mixed Return to examples – which are H and L

continued Low variety has low status, people deny using it, existence denied, not written, not seen as a proper language High variety has high status, seen as real language, may have religious or cultural significance, written with grammar and dictionaries

Problems with diglossia Diglossia sometimes an inadequate concept May be a continuum – Malay dialects -- Standard Malay – post creole continua in Carribean, post-pidgin continua in West Africa Competing high varieties – French and Classical Arabic in Tunisia Conflict in Norway and Greece (Dhimotiki vs Katharevousa – 1901 riots, D – official after 1974)

continued Complementary high varieties – Standard Irish and Standard Hiberno-English in Ireland Standard Welsh and Standard English (School English) in Wales Triglossia – intermediate varieties between H and L varieties – Modern Standard Arabic

Origins of Diglossia Conquest – but not population replacement or language shift – South America and Algeria Fixing of written, H variety – SWANA Rise of H varieties – unification of separate states or independence – Northern Nigeria, Malaysia, Tanzania

Features of diglossic society Limited education High level of social and economic inequality Limited social mobility Pronounced ethnic differences (sometimes) Recent national unity (sometimes)

Bilingualism Many people speak more than one language But no separation of domains – equal status French and English in Canada German minority in Belgium Smaller languages in Africa and Australia Sometimes unstable – prelude to language shift may persist for centuries -- India

continued Continuum between diglossia and bilingualism Quebec went from partial diglossia in 1960s to partial bilingualism No cognitive disadvantages to bilingualism – possibly some advantages In some cases – Canada, Singapore, Wales, USA in future ? – elite is bilingual