Chapter 10 Personality

Chapter Preview Psychodynamic Perspectives Humanistic Perspectives Trait Perspectives Personological and Life Story Perspectives Social Cognitive Perspectives Biological Perspectives Personality Assessment

Personality Pattern of enduring, distinctive . . . Thoughts Emotions Behaviors . . . that characterize how an individual adapts to the world

Psychodynamic Perspectives Emphasize that personality is primarily unconscious, or beyond awareness Freud’s Psychoanalytic Theory Sexual Drive Most important human motivator Main determinant of personality Hysteria Physical symptoms that have no physical cause Hysterical symptoms as overdetermined, or having multitude of causes in unconscious

Structures of Personality Id Consists of unconscious drives Reservoir of sexual energy Works according to pleasure principle Ego Deals with demands of reality Abides by reality principle Superego Evaluates morality of behavior Reflected in “conscience”

Iceberg Model

Defense Mechanisms Tactics ego uses to reduce anxiety by unconsciously distorting reality Displacement Directs unacceptable impulses at less threatening target Repression Pushes unacceptable back into unconscious mind Foundation for all psychological defense mechanisms Sublimation Transforms unconscious impulses into beneficial activities

Psychosexual Stages Universal stages of personality development Erogenous Zones Parts of body that have especially strong pleasure- giving qualities at particular developmental stages Adult personality as determined by way conflicts resolved between early sources of pleasure and demands of reality

Psychosexual Stages Oral Stage (first 18 months) Pleasure centers around mouth Chewing, sucking, biting reduce tension Anal Stage (18 to 36 months) Pleasure centers around anus and urethra and their functions Toilet training Phallic Stage (3 to 6 years)

Phallic Stage Pleasure focuses on genitals Oedipus Complex Discovery that self-stimulation is enjoyable Oedipus Complex Boy’s intense desire to replace father and enjoy affections of mother Castration Anxiety Boy’s intense fear of being mutilated by father Identifying with father and adopting male gender role to reduce conflict, as foundation for superego Without experience of castration anxiety, girls cannot develop superego like boys

Psychosexual Stages Latency Period (6 years to puberty) Setting aside all interest in sexuality No real development, according to Freud Genital Stage (puberty to adulthood) Sexual reawakening Source of sexual pleasure outside family Fixation Particular psychosexual stage colors adult personality

Defense Mechanisms & Freudian Stages

Critics & Revisionists Sexuality not pervasive force behind personality Oedipal complex not universal First five years not as powerful in shaping adult personality Ego and conscious thought more dominant Ego with separate line of development from id Sociocultural factors more important

Horney’s Sociocultural Approach Freud’s hypotheses lacking support of observable data Sociocultural influences on personality development Both sexes envy attributes of other Women  Status bestowed upon men Men  Reproductive capabilities of women Need for security, not sex, as prime motive

Jung’s Analytical Theory Collective Unconscious Impersonal, deepest layer of unconscious mind Shared by all human beings because of ancestral past Archetypes Emotionally-laden ideas and images that have rich and symbolic meaning for all people Anima & Animus Mandala Persona

Adler’s Individual Psychology People motivated by purposes, goals Perfection, not pleasure, as key motivator Compensation Attempt to overcome inferiorities by developing abilities Style of Life Each person’s unique striving for superiority Birth order Could influence success of striving for superiority

Psychodynamic Perspectives Personality determined by current and early life experiences Personality as developmental (stages) Mental transformation of experiences for meaning Mind as not all conscious Inner world conflicting with outer demands of reality, creating anxiety Personality and adjustment as psychology topics

Psychodynamic Perspectives Criticisms Overly negative and pessimistic views Too much faith in unconscious mind Too much importance on sexuality Not a theory that can be tested empirically Contributions Childhood as crucial to later functioning Development understood in terms of stages Unconscious processes playing a significant role

Humanistic Perspectives Person’s capacity for personal growth Positive human qualities Ability to . . . . control our lives achieve what we desire Abraham Maslow (1908-1870) Carl Rogers (1902-1987)

Maslow’s Approach Humanistic psychology as ‘third force’ Focus on very best examples of human beings: Self-actualizers Motivated to develop full potential as human beings At optimal level of existence Capacity for ‘peak experiences’ Maslow’s list of self-actualized individuals as biased, in terms of gender and culture

Rogers’ Approach Unconditional positive regard Conditions of worth Being accepted, valued, and treated positively Conditions of worth Standards to meet to receive positive regard from others Self-concept Representation of who we are and who we wish to be Healthy human relations Empathy Genuineness

Humanistic Perspectives Perceiving self and world as essential element of personality Consider whole person and positive bent of human nature Emphasis on conscious experience Criticisms Too optimistic, overestimating freedom and rationality Promoting excessive self-love and narcissism Not holding people accountable for behaviors

Trait Perspectives Broad, enduring dispositions (traits) that tend to lead to characteristic responses Gordon Allport (1897-1967) Focus on healthy, well-adjusted individuals Uniqueness of each person and capacity to adapt Traits Mental structures that make different situations same Lexical approach & factor analysis

Five-Factor Model Supertraits thought to describe main dimensions of personality Neuroticism (Emotional Instability) Extraversion Openness to Experience Agreeableness Conscientiousness

Five-Factor Model

Five-Factor Model Evidence of five factors of personality in . . . Different cultures Animals Strong relationship between personality traits and well-being Extraversion  Higher levels of well-being Neuroticism  Lower levels of well-being

Five-Factor Model Subjective well-being Person’s assessment of own level of positive affect Traits, as enduring characteristics States, as briefer experiences, such as mood Enhancing positive mood Spending more time with loved others Savoring Attending to positive experiences and appreciating them

Trait Perspectives Practical value of personality traits Connections between personality traits and . . . Health Ways of thinking Career success Relations with others Criticisms Missing importance of situational factors Painting personality with very broad strokes

Personological Approach Henry Murray (1893-1988) Personology Study of the whole person “The history of the organism is the organism.” Analysis of Hitler as first “offender profile” Thematic Appercetion Test (TAT) Measure of motives, which are largely unknown

Life Story Approach Dan McAdams Psychobiography Our life stories are our identities. Life Story Interviews Coded for themes relevant to life stages and transitions Intimacy Motive Enduring concern for warm interpersonal encounters Psychobiography Means of inquiry that applies personality theory to single person’s life

Life Story Approach Extraordinarily rich opportunity for researcher Criticisms Difficult and time-consuming Collecting interviews and narratives Extensive coding and content analysis Psychobiographical inquiries . . . More prone to biases May not serve scientific goal of generalizability

Social Cognitive Perspectives Emphasize . . . conscious awareness beliefs expectations goals Incorporate principles from behaviorism Explore ability . . . to reason to think about past, present, and future to reflect on self

Bandura’s Social Cognitive Theory Reciprocal Determinism Interaction of behavior, environment, and person/cognitive factors to create personality Observational Learning Personal Control Internal Locus of Control External Locus of Control Self-Efficacy Belief that one can master situation and produce positive change

Reciprocal Determinism

Mischel’s Contributions Critique of consistency in behavior No evidence of cross-situational consistency Situationism Personality and behavior often vary from one context to another Controversial among personality psychologists CAPS Theory Cognitive Affective Processing Systems Thoughts and emotions about self/world affect behavior Concerned with how personality works: “It depends”

Social Cognitive Perspective Focuses on interactions of person with environment Highlights observation of behavior Emphasizes influence of cognitive processes Criticisms Too concerned with change and situational influences, rather than enduring qualities of personality Ignores role of biology in personality Tends to lead to very specific predictions, making generalizations impossible

Biological Perspectives Hippocrates Personality based on bodily fluids, or humours Freud Connection between mind (personality) and body Allport Traits as “neuro-psychic,” personality as “psychophysical” Murray “No brain, no personality”

Eysenck’s RAS Theory Reticular Activating System (RAS) Located in brain stem Plays role in wakefulness or arousal Eysenck’s Theory All share optimal arousal level RAS of extraverts and introverts may differ in baseline levels of arousal, with behaviors aimed at regulating arousal around these baselines But introverts may just be more sensitive to stimuli

Eysenck’s RAS Theory Reticular Activating System (RAS) Located in brain stem Plays role in wakefulness or arousal Eysenck’s Theory All share optimal arousal level RAS of extraverts and introverts may differ in baseline levels of arousal, with behaviors aimed at regulating arousal around these baselines But introverts may just be more sensitive to stimuli

Gray’s Reinforcement Sensitivity Behavioral approach system (BAS) and behavioral inhibition system (BIS) underlie personality Differences in sensitivity to rewards and punishers BAS Sensitive to rewards Predisposition to positive emotion Underlies extraversion BIS Sensitive to punishers Predisposition to fear Underlies neuroticism

Role of Neurotransmitters Dopamine Function in experience of reward Factor in BAS or extraversion Serotonin Related to neuroticism Less serotonin  More negative mood Inhibition of serotonin reuptake . . . Decreases negative mood Enhances feelings of sociability Does not tell us about potential causal pathways

Behavior Genetics Study of inherited underpinnings of behavioral characteristics Twin Studies Genetic factors explain differences in big five traits Autobiographical memories influenced by genetics Role of genetic factors enormously complex Genes and environments intertwined Traits influenced by multiple genes

Biological Perspectives Tie personality to . . . Animal learning models Advances in brain imaging Evolutionary theory Cautions Biology can be effect, not cause, of personality Issue of whether personality can change throughout life

Personality Assessment Rigorous methods for measuring mental processes Assess personality for different reasons Self-Report Tests Projective Tests Other Assessment Methods

Self-Report Tests Directly ask people whether different items describe their personality traits Social Desirability Motivates individuals to respond in ways that make them look better To address social desirability . . . Give questionnaire designed to tap into tendency Design scales so it is impossible to tell what is being measured Use empirically-keyed test to distinguish known groups

Self-Report Tests MMPI NEO-PI-R Most widely used and researched empirically-keyed self-report personality test Used to assess personality and predict outcomes NEO-PI-R Geared toward assessing five-factor model Includes items with face validity

Projective Tests Present individuals with ambiguous stimulus Ask them to describe it, or tell a story about it Especially designed to elicit unconscious feelings and conflicts Theoretically aligned with psychodynamic perspectives on personality

Projective Tests Rorschach Inkblot Test Ten inkblots, when described, scored for indicating underlying psychological characteristics Reliability and validity criticized Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) Designed to elicit stories that reveal personality Higher reliability and validity

Rorschach Inkblot Test

Thematic Apperception Test

Other Assessment Methods Measuring behavior directly Cognitive assessments Friend or peer ratings Psychophysiological measures Choice depends greatly on theoretical perspective