Transcendentalism was an optimistic response to the brewing times. Popular forms of literature, such as poems, could not adequately express the carnage that was the war-time reality, nor could they express the depths of poverty and desperation people experienced.

April 1861, the Confederate Army attacks Fort Sumter The Civil War begins

The US invaded Iraq in 2003. Thus far, over 3,948 American soldiers have been killed in Iraq. In the Battle of Antietam, a single fight during the Civil War, 26,000 men were killed. By the time the Confederates surrendered, 620,000 men had been killed.

Rifle balls shatter bones No antiseptics Limbs were piled in a cart No anesthesia Surgeon’s sharpened their scalpels on the soles of their boots

Photographs Need for Journalists Growing fields of psychology and natural science (Freud and Darwin) Why do people act the way they do?

To write about the common course of everyday life with exactness. Very different from the idealism found in Romanticism/Transcendentalism. Often focused on the slums, the factories, hardships, etc. Character development is more important than the “action.” The universe is indifferent to the plight of Man.

People are animals People are affected by biology and environment We have limited choices and motivations

Post-war industrialization occurred rapidly. Factory conditions were horrible: low wages, no max. work week or overtime, no worker’s comp. or safety rules, child labor, etc. Many people lived in squalor in over-priced tenements. Local law enforcement/politicians often corrupt. Huge influx of immigrants: Polish, Irish, Italians, who rivaled for power and were often met with discrimination.

Lives a hard life (Prostitute, Slave, A man of the streets) Is no longer innocent Discovers truth through his struggle

Not ideal and more often corrupt or “less than ideal” character. Events accurately show the harsh reality of everyday life.

Focuses on one particular geographic area and realistically presented the region’s dialect, manners and culture. Although realistic in representing the region, Regionalists often depicted unrealistic, sentimental character and social development.

Mark Twain Brett Harte Kate Chopin