What holds an atom together?

Fundamental Forces in Nature Gravity- universal attraction of all objects to one another Gravity- universal attraction of all objects to one another Electromagnetism- Attraction or repulsion based on charge or poles Electromagnetism- Attraction or repulsion based on charge or poles Strong Nuclear Force- Force holding the nucleus of an atom together Strong Nuclear Force- Force holding the nucleus of an atom together Weak Nuclear Force- Force causing subatomic particles to change into one another (causing nuclear radiation) Weak Nuclear Force- Force causing subatomic particles to change into one another (causing nuclear radiation)

Quantum Forces Gravity is described by Einstein’s general relativity. Gravity is described by Einstein’s general relativity. General relativity and quantum mechanics contradict each other. General relativity and quantum mechanics contradict each other. Normally general relativity is used for larger bodies (a baseball) and quantum mechanics is used for smaller objects (electrons) Normally general relativity is used for larger bodies (a baseball) and quantum mechanics is used for smaller objects (electrons)

Quantum Mechanics Quantum mechanics describe how forces and motion work at an atomic level. Quantum mechanics describe how forces and motion work at an atomic level. The word quantum is from the root “quanta-” meaning how much (quantity) The word quantum is from the root “quanta-” meaning how much (quantity) Energy only comes out of an atom in discrete amounts (specific numerical amounts- little chunks) ~it works like getting $ change Energy only comes out of an atom in discrete amounts (specific numerical amounts- little chunks) ~it works like getting $ change Say someone owes you $3.25 Say someone owes you $3.25 The only money you can get from them come in the discrete amounts of $1, 50¢, 25¢, 10¢, 5¢, or 1¢ The only money you can get from them come in the discrete amounts of $1, 50¢, 25¢, 10¢, 5¢, or 1¢

How atoms release energy atoms can absorb energy causing electrons to “jump” to a state of higher energy. atoms can absorb energy causing electrons to “jump” to a state of higher energy. This is called an excited state This is called an excited state Electrons will leave ground configuration (electron configurations we have been drawing), and move to higher energy positions Electrons will leave ground configuration (electron configurations we have been drawing), and move to higher energy positions When electrons return to ground state they release energy in discrete amounts. When electrons return to ground state they release energy in discrete amounts.

How do we know When atoms “drop” from an excited state back to ground they emit energy as light. When atoms “drop” from an excited state back to ground they emit energy as light. Light refers to all of the electromagnetic spectrum, not just the colors we can see. Light refers to all of the electromagnetic spectrum, not just the colors we can see. Infrared, ultraviolet, radio waves, and microwaves are all types of light like Red, Orange, Yellow, Green, Blue, (Indigo) and Violet. Infrared, ultraviolet, radio waves, and microwaves are all types of light like Red, Orange, Yellow, Green, Blue, (Indigo) and Violet. All travel at c (the speed of light 3 x10 8 m/s) All travel at c (the speed of light 3 x10 8 m/s) The difference between these is their frequency, wavelength, and energy. The difference between these is their frequency, wavelength, and energy.

EM Spectrum /frequency

Neils Bohr Bohr saw, when he dispersed (put it through a prism to separate it) light from a hydrogen light bulb, distinct bands of colors instead of a smooth transition. Bohr saw, when he dispersed (put it through a prism to separate it) light from a hydrogen light bulb, distinct bands of colors instead of a smooth transition. What you would expect What he actually saw

Hydrogen light bulb A hydrogen light bulb works like a neon light. A hydrogen light bulb works like a neon light. Electricity goes through the gas. All the atoms jump to an excited state. When they fall back to ground state, they give off energy as light. Electricity goes through the gas. All the atoms jump to an excited state. When they fall back to ground state, they give off energy as light. Since we only see bands of light (when dispersed), we know energy is coming out in discrete amounts, not a steady flow. Since we only see bands of light (when dispersed), we know energy is coming out in discrete amounts, not a steady flow.

Energy Levels From this, Bohr determined electrons were at certain energy levels from the nucleus. From this, Bohr determined electrons were at certain energy levels from the nucleus. Excited e - ’s jump to higher energy levels, then fall back to ground. Excited e - ’s jump to higher energy levels, then fall back to ground. Since the distance it “falls” back is always the same, energy always comes out of an atom in discrete amounts. Since the distance it “falls” back is always the same, energy always comes out of an atom in discrete amounts. The energy level are the numbers on the left column The energy level are the numbers on the left column

What keeps electrons near? electromagnetic force electromagnetic force like charges repel, opposite charges attract like charges repel, opposite charges attract The e - are attracted to the positive nucleus but repelled by every other e -. The e - are attracted to the positive nucleus but repelled by every other e -. This is why we have to fill all up arrows before pairing electrons up (they don’t want to be next to each other). This is why we have to fill all up arrows before pairing electrons up (they don’t want to be next to each other). Pauli Exclusion Principle ~ You can not have more than two electrons in one orbital (on the same line) because of this repulsion. Pauli Exclusion Principle ~ You can not have more than two electrons in one orbital (on the same line) because of this repulsion.

Orbitals instead of orbits With simple orbits electrons would be pulled into the nucleus. With simple orbits electrons would be pulled into the nucleus. An orbital is just the area with the highest probability of finding an electron. An orbital is just the area with the highest probability of finding an electron. The high energy of the electrons keeps them spinning around randomly. The high energy of the electrons keeps them spinning around randomly. We do NOT know how an electron moves! We do NOT know how an electron moves! Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle ~ we can never know exactly where an electron is and where it is going at the same time. Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle ~ we can never know exactly where an electron is and where it is going at the same time. Orbitals are represented by the lines you place the arrows on Orbitals are represented by the lines you place the arrows on

This is kind of how we assume an electron travels e-e-

Orbitals take on different shapes The easiest (lowest energy level) shape an orbital can take is called s (sphere). The easiest (lowest energy level) shape an orbital can take is called s (sphere). The first energy level can hold 1 s orbital only. The first energy level can hold 1 s orbital only. The second energy level can hold 1 s orbital and 3 p orbitals (p orbital is a higher energy shape than s) The second energy level can hold 1 s orbital and 3 p orbitals (p orbital is a higher energy shape than s) The third can hold 1 s orbital 3 p orbitals and 5 d orbitals. The third can hold 1 s orbital 3 p orbitals and 5 d orbitals

More protons The more positive the nucleus the closer the electrons can be pulled in. The more positive the nucleus the closer the electrons can be pulled in. This is why we have to skip d and f (only a larger nucleus can squeeze all those orbitals into one energy level). This is why we have to skip d and f (only a larger nucleus can squeeze all those orbitals into one energy level). Aufbau principle- electrons will occupy the lowest energy orbital available. Aufbau principle- electrons will occupy the lowest energy orbital available. If electrons were forced to be in the same orbital, it is assumed they would spin in opposite directions (to avoid contact). This is represented by either an up or a down arrow. If electrons were forced to be in the same orbital, it is assumed they would spin in opposite directions (to avoid contact). This is represented by either an up or a down arrow.

What holds a nucleus together? Strong Nuclear Force- holds the nucleus together Strong Nuclear Force- holds the nucleus together EM forces want to blow the nucleus apart EM forces want to blow the nucleus apart Neutrons lessen this effect Neutrons lessen this effect Without enough neutrons the atom will break apart. Without enough neutrons the atom will break apart. This process is called radioactive decay This process is called radioactive decay For some isotopes this happens very quickly (radioactive stuff) but for most it doesn’t. For some isotopes this happens very quickly (radioactive stuff) but for most it doesn’t.

Odds and ends

Going from atoms (microscopic) to useable amounts (macroscopic) of substances chemists do not talk about the number of atoms in a reaction because atoms are so small. chemists do not talk about the number of atoms in a reaction because atoms are so small. Instead they refer to moles of atoms. Instead they refer to moles of atoms. 1 mole = x10 23 particles 1 mole = x10 23 particles This is Avogadro’s number This is Avogadro’s number

Law of multiple proportions The same elements may combine to form several different compounds The same elements may combine to form several different compounds For example H and O can combine form H 2 O (water) and H 2 O 2 (hydrogen peroxide) For example H and O can combine form H 2 O (water) and H 2 O 2 (hydrogen peroxide) C H and O may form alcohol, formaldehyde, ether (starting fluid) or many other things. C H and O may form alcohol, formaldehyde, ether (starting fluid) or many other things. basically if you see a couple of elements don’t assume they can only go together one way. basically if you see a couple of elements don’t assume they can only go together one way.

Law of conservation of mass ~ mass is neither created nor destroyed in a reaction. ~ mass is neither created nor destroyed in a reaction. The mass of the products must equal the mass of the reactants. The mass of the products must equal the mass of the reactants.