1 西方文明史 第十三講：中古歐洲學術 ─ 大學、士林哲學 劉 慧 教授 【本著作除另有註明外，採取創用 CC 「姓名標示 －非商業性－相同方式分享」臺灣 3.0 版授權釋出】創用 CC 「姓名標示 －非商業性－相同方式分享」臺灣 3.0 版

2 Intellectual Life in the Central Middle Ages Institutions, contents, methods

3 Monasteries – cathedral schools – university Logic and Law – scholastic methods, translations – Abelard ( ) – Aristotle (most works translated c.1160s) – Aquinas ( ) Scholasticism as a view of knowledge and a view of the world

4 Syllabus of studies St Augustine ( ) Cassiodorus (c.485-c.585) – Grammar, rhetoric, logic; geometry, arithmetic, music, astronomy Boethius (c.480-c.525) – translations and summaries of Greek learning Isidore of Seville (c ), On the Nature of Things; Etymologies Carolingian scholars: biblical commentaries Gerbert (pope Sylvester II ) – Rhetoric: to transmit scriptural truth → instrument of government – Lectured on logic

5 Aristotle’s logic Transmitted to western Europe by: up to 11 th c, Boethius from early 12 th c, the Arab world Orderly and systematic view of the world and of man’s mind Categories Quantity, quality, relation, position, place, time, state, action, affection Genus, species, differentia, property, accident Humans: genus = animal, species = human being, differentia = rational, property = capacity for laughter, accident = black or white skin Classification of statements, of types of valid argument From a lack of system in learning → to new habits of thought, logical arrangement and analysis – general confidence in the formal processes of reasoning – 13 th c main feature of undergraduate studies

6 In the monasteries Complex round of services, elaborate liturgyelaborate liturgy – Saints’ lives, hymns, antiphons, lectionaries, music Intellectual activities – Tell time: watching the stars – Arithmetic (esp. 11 th c): the abacus – Writing of histories (annals; defend privileges) – The Benedictine rule study 4 hours a day, a book a year – The Dominican rule Can stay up at night, make services brief The florilegium: individual monks collected and arranged extracts from their own reading

7 In the cathedrals 8, 9 th -c capitularies and councils demanded that monasteries and cathedrals provide free instruction to all comers – 11 th -c monastic reformers were against this 11 th c: rapid growth of students in cathedral schools – Intellectual restlessness – Many went to France to study logic. – E.g. to Fulbert, chancellor and later bishop of Chartres ( ) With ready-made audiences, cathedrals provided a natural focus for free- lance teachers Later 12 th c: some schools in cathedral towns evolved into universities Marketable skills: administrators

8 In the universities Universities were for clerics – 17-year-old sons of well-off landowners, merchants, artisans University was a guild of students or teachers – Teaching licence, degrees, fixed curriculum – A foundation charter Seven liberal arts – Grammar, rhetoric, logic, astronomy, geometry, arithmetic, music Advanced degree in law, medicine, philosophy – Universities of Bologna, Salerno, Paris – University of Bologna: Roman law and canon law Traditions remained in Italy and southern France Glossators wrote commentaries on the Corpus Juris Civilis; Accursius’s Glossa Ordinaria, mid-13 th C

9 Scholasticism New towns in northern Italy and the civil law; the ‘Investiture Controversy’ and the canon law – Renewed interests in the Corpus Juris Civilis c.1100 – The Bible, writings of the Fathers, edicts of church councils, decrees of popes – Gratian’s Concordance of Discordant Canons (c.1140) Peter Abelard ( ): scholastic method – Reconcile conflicting theological authorities; Sic et non – Peter Lombard ( ): the Book of Sentences 250 commentaries on the Book of Sentences Greek and Arabic natural sciences Thomas Aquinas ( ) Summa Theologiae – Knowledge from revealed truth (mysteries of the faith) + human reason + sense experience = one truth

10 Scholasticism: a method of teaching and learning – Schola: learned debate, school – Scholastic method: from questions (quaestio), to the views pro (videtur quod) and con (sed contra) of traditional authorities on a particular subject to the author’s own conclusion (responsio) – The process that brings about concordia, e.g. To show that texts which seem to be in disagreement, in fact discuss different aspects or issues Metaphorical interpretation of conflicting texts Textual analysis – go back to the original source ‘Tradition’ and reason are both appealed to The summa: form mid 12 th c, scholars felt comfortable about their command of the achievements of the past

11 The commentary – Lectio (reading of an authoritative text in the classroom) – meditatio (exposition and explication) The Scholastic question (quaestio) – Discussions (disputationes) in the afternoon, during Advent and Lent – A question posed – authorities in favour and against the issue presented – answer given, objections addressed The summa – General presentation of a subject (e.g. canon law); large compilations of established opinion – Comprehensive view of the whole of attainable truth

12 Scholasticism: a view of knowledge; a view of the world – Agreement between texts – all knowledge was compatible – All knowledge can be brought into one unified whole Thomas Aquinas’s ( ) Credenda: from God through biblical revelation – The existence of God as a Holy Trinity, – the creation of the world in time, – an original sin staining all mankind, – the Incarnation of God in Jesus Christ, – the power of church sacraments to convey grace, – the existence of purgatory, – the resurrection of the human body, – the Last Judgment of mankind

13 Later development Institutional, sterile Divorce between faith and reason = demise of medieval scholasticism – Faith and theology through symbols and images/ reason and science through conceptual argumentation – they do not say the same things

14 版權聲明 頁碼作品版權標示作者 / 來源 4 WIKIPEDIA ( ， visited. 4 Universität zu Köln ( ， visited. 依據著作權法第 46 、 52 、 65 條合理使用。 6 Salisbury Cathedral ( ， visited. 依據著作權法第 46 、 52 、 65 條合理使用。 6 Flickr / Rhubarble ( ， visited. 8 London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine ( ， visited. 依據著作權法第 46 、 52 、 65 條合理使用。

15 頁碼作品版權標示作者 / 來源 8 Flickr / SplodgusMaximus ( ， visited. 11 Flickr / tejvanphotos ( ， visited. 11 WIKIPEDIA ( ， visited.