Chris Smart Creighton Bradley Leandra Londo

9.1 Using Reasons to Plan Your Argument 9.2 The Slippery Distinction between Reasons and Evidence 9.3 Evidence vs. Reports of Evidence 9.4 Selecting the Right Form for Reporting Evidence 9.5 Reliable Evidence 10.1 Questioning Your Argument 10.2 Finding Alternatives to Your Argument 10.3 Deciding What to Acknowledge 10.4 Responses as Subordinate Arguments

Readers use reasons to believe and understand Collect evidence and use reasons to organize Use a storyboard Try different arrangements Change as you information changes

Reasons are why Evidence is accepted as fact Start with reasons but base them on facts Readers decide whether it is fact or a reason Imagine “how” and “why”

Evidence is usually reported. Evidence is rounded or shaped. Unlikely for a researcher to rely on only 1 source Most evidence we get is 3 rd hand Readers want proof Methods sources

Numerous ways to report evidence Direct Quotes Photographs, video, other media Charts or tables Paraphrasing Different researchers require different techniques Improper use of reporting leads to suspicion and loss of credibility

Criteria for reliable evidence Precision Avoid vague words like “great deal” or small amount. Use discretion in differing fields Representative More than one bit of info Find best evidence Accuracy Small mistakes kill credibility Acknowledge if evidence is of unknown accuracy From an authoritative source Make the evidence easy to interpret

Question the problem as your reader would Why have you defined it that way? Is there even a problem? What kind of problem is it? Question the solution as well What kind of solution is it? Is the claim too strong? Why is your solution the best? The best time to fix a problem is when you find it

Different type of evidence wanted Not accurate Not precise Outdated Not representative Not authoritative Not enough evidence

Alternatives in your sources Note where source takes a different approach Especially outright disagreements Acknowledge alternative positions of the source Don’t ignore evidence because you deem it irrelevant – explain why. If you pay attention to problems noted in sources, you will understand the problem better.

“But there are causes in addition to the one you claim.” If using cause-effect to explain your problem, remember no cause has a single effect and vice-versa “But what about these counter examples?” Think of them first Acknowledge the more plausible ones Explain why they aren’t valid for your argument

“I don’t define X as you do. To me, X means… Define it in a way that supports your solution Argue your definition to support it If using a technical definition over a common one, explain why. Also do this if using a common definition over a technical one.

Selecting Alternatives to respond to: Consider these priorities Plausible charges of apparent weakness you can rebut Alternative lines of argument that have been important in your field Alternative conclusions readers want to be true Alternative evidence that readers know Important counterexamples you have to explain away

Selecting alternatives to respond to: Look for alternatives that allow you to repeat part of your argument Acknowledge alternatives that may particularly appeal to readers, but only if you can do so without sounding too dismissive.

If finding questions you cannot answer, try redefining your problem, or rebuilding your argument to avoid it. Openly acknowledge the problem and respond that: The rest of your argument more than balances the flaw While the flaw is serious, further research would show a way around it While the flaw makes it impossible to accept your claim fully, your argument offers important insight into the question and suggests what a better answer would be.

You have to respond to your imagined readers most thoughtful alternatives and objectives with an argument Even most minimal responses give reason for accepting, limiting or rejecting what you’ve acknowledged More substantial responses require a full argument Acknowledging the readers alternatives and objections brings you and your argument more credibility.

9.1 Using Reasons to Plan Your Argument 9.2 The Slippery Distinction between Reasons and Evidence 9.3 Evidence vs. Reports of Evidence 9.4 Selecting the Right Form for Reporting Evidence 9.5 Reliable Evidence 10.1 Questioning Your Argument 10.2 Finding Alternatives to Your Argument 10.3 Deciding What to Acknowledge 10.4 Responses as Subordinate Arguments

Booth, Wayne C., Gregory G. Colomb, and Joseph M. Williams. The Craft of Research. 2nd ed. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, Print.