Exploring Psychology Chapter 7 Learning Eighth Edition David G. Myers Copyright © 2011 by Worth Publishers

Definition Learning is a relatively permanent change in an organism’s behavior due to experience. What behaviors are learned? What behaviors are not learned? Preview Question 1: What distinguishes the basic forms of learning?

How Do We Learn? We learn by association. Our minds naturally connect events that occur in sequence. 2000 years ago, Aristotle suggested this law of association. Examples: ABC Song, music on a movie, smell of baked goods, sight of belt or wooden spoon

Figure 7.1 Classical conditioning Myers: Exploring Psychology, Eighth Edition Copyright © 2011 by Worth Publishers

Figure 7.2 Operant conditioning Myers: Exploring Psychology, Eighth Edition Copyright © 2011 by Worth Publishers

Classical Conditioning Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov Behaviorists John Watson. Preview Question 2: How does a neutral stimulus become a conditioned stimulus? Sovfoto Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936)

Pavlov’s Experiments Before conditioning: Unconditioned Stimulus, US - food Unconditioned Response, UR - salivation . Neutral stimulus - does nothing Preview Question 3: In classical conditioning, what are the processes of acquisition, extinction, spontaneous recovery, generalization, and discrimination?

Pavlov’s Experiments During conditioning: Neutral stimulus (tone) and the US (food) are paired, resulting in salivation (UR). After conditioning: Neutral stimulus (now Conditioned Stimulus, CS) elicits salivation (now Conditioned Response, CR)

Pavlov’s Experiments Unconditioned Stimulus (US) Unconditioned Response (UR) Neutral Stimulus Conditioned Stimulus (CS) Conditioned Response (CR) Examples: 1, 2, 3

We have all been classically conditioned. Punishment Tools Food triggers illness Training coyotes to not eat sheep Teacher getting attention of class Language learning Bells at school Unconditioned Stimulus (US) Unconditioned Response (UR) Neutral Stimulus Conditioned Stimulus (CS) Conditioned Response (CR)

Terms associated with classical conditioning Acquisition Higher Order Conditioning (Secondary Conditioning) – Fear of dogs, fear of barking Extinction Spontaneous Recovery Generalization – sound of a different tone, fear of cars and all moving objects Discrimination – ability to distinguish

Figure 7.5 Idealized curve of acquisition, extinction, and spontaneous recovery Myers: Exploring Psychology, Eighth Edition Copyright © 2011 by Worth Publishers

Figure 7.6 Child abuse leaves tracks in the brain Myers: Exploring Psychology, Eighth Edition Copyright © 2011 by Worth Publishers

Applications of Classical Conditioning Former crack cocaine users should avoid cues (people, places) associated with previous drug use. Through classical conditioning, a drug (plus its taste) that affects the immune response may cause the taste of the drug to invoke the immune response. Preview Question 6: What have been some applications of classical conditioning?

Applications of Classical Conditioning Watson used classical conditioning procedures to develop advertising campaigns for a number of organizations, including Maxwell House, making the “coffee break” an American custom. Brown Brothers John B. Watson

Operant Condition Make a dog salivate is on thing, what about this…?

Classical vs. Operant Conditioning Which is Which? Classical conditioning forms associations between stimuli (CS and US). Operant conditioning, on the other hand, forms an association between behaviors and the resulting events, i.e. punishments and rewards Preview Question 7: What is operant conditioning, and how does it differ from classical conditioning?

The Law of Effect – Rewarded behavior is likely to recur. Edward L. Thorndike

B.F. Skinner Shaping – providing reinforces that lead to desired behaviors. Figure 7.10 A Skinner box Myers: Exploring Psychology, Eighth Edition Copyright © 2011 by Worth Publishers

Reinforcer – any event that strengthens the preceding response. Positive reinforcement – strengthens a response by presenting a pleasant stimulus after a response. Negative reinforcement – strengthens a response by removing or reducing something undesirable or unpleasant. Negative reinforcement is not punishment. Table 7.1 Ways to Increase Behavior Myers: Exploring Psychology, Eighth Edition Copyright © 2011 by Worth Publishers

Figure 7.11 Intermittent reinforcement schedules Myers: Exploring Psychology, Eighth Edition Copyright © 2011 by Worth Publishers

Table 7.2 Schedules of Reinforcement Myers: Exploring Psychology, Eighth Edition Copyright © 2011 by Worth Publishers

What is better reinforcement or punishment? Punishment – any consequence that decreases the frequency of a preceding behavior. What is better reinforcement or punishment? Table 7.3 Ways to Decrease Behavior Myers: Exploring Psychology, Eighth Edition Copyright © 2011 by Worth Publishers

Examples of Operant Conditioning 1, 2, 3 Table 7.4 Comparison of Classical and Operant Conditioning Myers: Exploring Psychology, Eighth Edition Copyright © 2011 by Worth Publishers

More About Learning Cognitive Maps Intrinsic Motivation Extrinsic Motivation Biological Predisposition

Applications of Operant Condition

Learning by Observation Higher animals, especially humans, learn through observing and imitating others. What have you learned by watching others? Imitating others is called modeling. © Herb Terrace Preview Question 13: What is observational learning, and how is it enabled by mirror neurons? ©Herb Terrace

Mirror Neurons Neuroscientists discovered mirror neurons in the brains of animals and humans that are active during observational learning. Reprinted with permission from the American Association for the Advancement of Science, Subiaul et al., Science 305: 407-410 (2004) © 2004 AAAS.

Imitation Onset Learning by observation begins early in life. This 14-month-old child imitates the adult on TV in pulling a toy apart. Child Development, 59 1221-1229. Photos Courtesy of A.N. Meltzoff and M. Hanuk. Meltzoff, A.N. (1998). Imitation of televised models by infants.

Bandura's Experiments Bandura's Bobo doll study (1961) indicated that individuals (children) learn through imitating others who receive rewards and punishments. Courtesy of Albert Bandura, Stanford University

Applications of Observational Learning Unfortunately, Bandura’s studies show that antisocial models (family, neighborhood or TV) may have antisocial effects.

Positive Observational Learning Fortunately, prosocial (positive, helpful) models may have prosocial effects. Preview Question 14: What is the impact of prosocial modeling and of antisocial modeling? Bob Daemmrich/ The Image Works

Television and Observational Learning Gentile et al., (2004) shows that children in elementary school who are exposed to violent television, videos, and video games express increased aggression. Ron Chapple/ Taxi/ Getty Images

Modeling Violence Research shows that viewing media violence leads to an increased expression of aggression. Bob Daemmrich/ The Image Works Glassman/ The Image Works Children modeling after pro wrestlers

Figure 7.15 The famous Bobo doll experiment Myers: Exploring Psychology, Eighth Edition Copyright © 2011 by Worth Publishers

Figure 7.16 Media violence viewing predicts future aggressive behavior Myers: Exploring Psychology, Eighth Edition Copyright © 2011 by Worth Publishers