Perception and Learning in Organizations

Vodafone Executive Grahame Maher Vodafone executive Grahame Maher keeps his perceptions in focus by discarding the executive suite and working alongside employees every day. Bob Finlayson/Newspix

Perception Defined The process of selecting, organizing, and interpreting information in order to make sense of the world around us. Bob Finlayson/Newspix

Perceptual Process Model Environmental Stimuli Feeling Hearing Seeing Smelling Tasting Selective Attention Organization and Interpretation Attitudes and Behavior

Selective Attention Characteristics of the object Perceptual context size, intensity, motion, repetition, novelty Perceptual context Characteristics of the perceiver attitudes perceptual defense expectations -- condition us to expect events

Perceptual Organization/Interpretation Categorical thinking Mostly unconscious process of organizing people/things Perceptual grouping principles Closure -- filling in missing pieces Identifying trends Similarity or proximity Mental models Broad world-views or ‘theories-in-use’ Help us to quickly make sense of situations May block recognition of new opportunities/perspectives

Social Identity Theory Oracle Corp. Employee Employees at other firms An Individual’s Social Identity Live in the United States People living in other countries Graduates from other schools University of Massachussetts Graduate

Social Identity Theory Features Categorization process compare characteristics of our groups with other groups Homogenization process similar traits within a group; different traits across groups Differentiation process develop less favorable images of people in groups other than our own

Stereotyping & Social Identity in Engineering Women are underrepresented in engineering and computer science partly because: Social identity Women dislike the ”geek” stereotype of engineers and computer scientists Sex role stereotyping Women discouraged from becoming engineers Prejudice Still some bias against female engineering students Mel Melcon/ Los Angeles Times

Stereotyping Process of assigning traits to people based on their membership in a social category Categorical thinking Strong need to understand and anticipate others’ behavior Enhances our self-perception and social identity Mel Melcon/ Los Angeles Times

Minimizing Stereotyping Biases Diversity awareness training Educate employees about the benefits of diversity and dispel myths Meaningful interaction Contact hypothesis Decision-making accountability Making people accountable for their decisions motivates them to consider objective info rather than stereotypes

Attribution Process Internal Attribution External Attribution Perception that person’s behavior is due to motivation/ability rather than situation or fate External Attribution Perception that behavior is due to situation or fate rather than the person

Rules of Attribution Internal Attribution External Attribution Frequently Consistency Seldom Seldom Consensus Frequently Frequently Distinctiveness Seldom External Attribution

Attribution Errors Fundamental Attribution Error Self-Serving Bias attributing own actions to external factors and other’s actions to internal factors Self-Serving Bias attributing our successes to internal factors and our failures to external factors

Self-Fulfilling Prophecy Cycle Supervisor forms expectations Employee’s behavior matches expectations Expectations affect supervisor’s behavior Supervisor’s behavior affects employee

Self-Fulfilling Prophecy Contingencies Self-fulfilling prophecy effect is strongest: At the beginning of the relationship (e.g. employee joins the team) When several people have similar expectations about the person When the employee has low rather than high past achievement

Other Perceptual Errors Primacy first impressions Recency most recent information dominates perceptions Halo one trait forms a general impression Projection believe other people do the same things or have the same attitudes as you

Improving Perceptions Empathy Sensitivity to the feelings, thoughts, and situation of others Cognitive and emotional component Self-awareness Awareness of your values, beliefs and prejudices Applying Johari Window

Know Yourself (Johari Window) Feedback Known to Self Unknown to Self Known to Others Open Area Blind Hidden Unknown Open Area Blind Unknown Hidden Disclosure Unknown to Others

Definition of Learning A relatively permanent change in behavior (or behavior tendency) that occurs as a result of a person’s interaction with the environment

Learning and Behavior Learning affected behavior through three MARS model elements: Ability -- learning increases skills and knowledge Role perceptions -- learning clarifies roles and priorities Motivation -- learning is necessary for some need fulfillment

Behavior Modification We “operate” on the environment alter behavior to maximize positive and minimize adverse consequences Learning is viewed as completely dependent on the environment Human thoughts are viewed as unimportant

A-B-Cs of Behavior Modification Antecedents What happens before behavior Warning light flashes Behavior What person says or does Machine operator turns off power Consequences What happens after behavior Co-workers thank operator Example

Contingencies of Reinforcement Consequence is introduced No consequence Consequence is removed Behavior increases/ maintained Positive reinforcement Negative reinforcement Punishment Extinction Punishment Behavior decreases

Schedules of Reinforcement behaviors 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Continuous Fixed ratio Variable ratio Time (Days) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 Fixed interval Variable interval

Behavior Modification in Practice Behavior modification is used in: every day life to influence behavior of others company programs to reduce absenteeism, improve safety, etc. Behavior modification problems include: Reward inflation Ethical concern that variable ratio schedule is a lottery Behaviorist philosophy vs. learning through mental processes

Social Learning Theory Behavioral modeling Observing and modeling behavior of others Learning behavior consequences Observing consequences that others experience Self-reinforcement Reinforcing our own behavior with consequences within our control

Kolb’s Experiential Learning Model Concrete experience Active experimentation Reflective observation Abstract conceptualization

Developing a Learning Orientation Value the generation of new knowledge Reward experimentation Recognize mistakes as part of learning Encourage employees to take reasonable risks

Action Learning Experiential learning in which employees, usually in teams, investigate and apply solutions to a situation that is both real and complex, with immediate relevance to the company Concrete experience Learning meetings Team conceptualizes and applies a solution to a problem

Perception and Learning in Organizations