History of Anatomy & Physiology

“What a piece of work is a man, how noble in reason, how infinite in faculties, in form and moving, how express and admirable; in action, how like an angel; in apprehension, how like a god! the beauty of the world; the paragon of animals; ” (Hamlet ) William Shakespeare

A&P history  parallels that of medicine

Grecian period A&P widely accepted as a science. Esteemed physical athletic competition Expressed the beauty of the body in their art.

Hippocrates ( BC) “Father of Medicine” –Established principles of medical practice –1 st to attribute diseases to natural causes rather than the displeasure of the gods –Used application and reason (theory and observation)

Recognized “4 body humors” (idea persisted for 200 years) –Sanguine – liver –Choler-(yellow)/bile/gallbladder –Phlegm – lungs –Melancholic (black bile) – spleen A healthy person had a balance of the four humors due to a healthy diet and an optimal environment

Believed disease was due to an imbalance of the humors Used “humoral theory” as a diagnostic tool (in conjunction with clinical observation of symptoms) The “art” (method) of medical practice is attributed to him Did no dissections

Hippocratic oath –given to graduating medical students –legacy he established through thoughtful, rational, ethical, moral and compassionate patient care.

Aristotle – ( BC) Pupil of Plato made careful observations and classifications of many living things (including humans) Laid the foundation for the field of comparative anatomy in an effort to learn more about human systems

Wrote first known account of embryology (and pangenesis) that described development of chicken heart. Helped refute idea of preformation (sperm and egg contained miniature adults that grow during development)

Erroneously believed that heart was seat of intelligence function of the brain bathed in fluid, was to cool blood pumped from the heart (contrary to Plato who thought brain was seat of feeling and thought).

First true anatomist –First to distinguish tendons from nerves –First to trace arterial blood pathways

Erasistratus (300 B.C.) “father of physiology” (Alexandrian School in Egypt) Authored book on causes of diseases –included observations of and relationships between the heart vessels, brain, and cranial nerves

noted the toxic effects of snake venom on various organs described changes in the liver resulting from various diseases Although many of his writings were scientific, some not; Ex: he believed cranial nerves carried animal spirits and muscles contracted because of distention by spirits.

Both Erasistatus and Herophilus were greatly criticized for vivisection. Herophilus (known as a butcher of men) dissected as many as 600 living persons, many for public demonstrations.

Herophilus first to document studies in neuroscience (cerebrum, cerebellum, sensory vs. motor nerves, cerebral ventricles, brain as a “thinking” organ)

Erasistratus – –credited with the pneumatic theory describing heart as a pump. –Organs were served by arteries, veins and nerves

Roman Era Stifled scientific advancements –set the stage for the Dark Ages (Middle Ages) –Interest shifted from theoretical to practical –Few dissections were done other than autopsies

Medicine was not preventative by treatment – mostly soldiers wounded in battle.

Church played a big part in practice of medicine. Ex: If a pregnant woman died, she could not be buried until the fetus was removed and baptized.

Claudius Galen ( A.D.) –Best physician since Hippocrates –Did only 2 or 3 human dissections due to legal limitations –limited in knowledge by animal dissections

–Very much an experimentalist –Ex: proved a pig heart continued to beat even though the nerve innervating it was cut pig could no longer squeal if the vocal cord nerve was cut

Published over 130 medical articles which served as “gospel” medicine for 1500 years. Correctly identified that arteries carried blood (not air as previously believed)

Helped to make connections between anatomical design and physiological function (“structure implies function”); ex. Diaphragm and its relationship to breathing. Encouraged ongoing treatment and follow up of patients in order to discern efficacy of treatment Erroneously thought liver, heart and brain injected animal spirits into veins to be transported throughout body

Middle Ages – –476 A.D. the fall of the Roman Empire –Lasted 1000 years –Dissections were completely outlawed, punishable by burning at the stake –Mysterious deaths were examined by inspection and palpation –A few autopsies were done during the plague in order to determine the cause of this dreadful disease

Ibn Sina (known as Avicenna) wrote over 400 Arabic books in medicine, philosophy, and math. –Texts were leading authority until 6 th century –Establishment of universities and specialized colleges within aided in field of anatomy –See apa/acta-apa-00-2/moroni-history.html for info on Alessandro Achillini and the University of Bologna

Renaissance – century Characterized by a rebirth of science Helped by development of moveable type and publication of many more books Obtaining cadavers became a problem with the explosion of scientific inquiry Medical students regularly practiced grave robbing until an official decree permitted the bodies of executed criminals to be used as specimens

–Andreas Vesalius ( ) “father of modern anatomy” Wrote the definitive anatomy book De Humani Corporis Fabrica which wasbeautifully illustrated and accurately described the various body systems and organs

book boldly challenged many of Galen’s was bitterly confronted by so many Galen anatomists (his former teacher Sylvious included) that he destroyed much of his later unpublished work and ceased his dissections

17 th –18 th Century –William Harvey ( ) – “father of modern physiology” Wrote On the Movement of the Heart and Blood in Animals which proved the continuous circulation of blood within vessels Had many of the same problems as Vesalius for many of the same reasons

Anton van Leeuwenhoek ( ) –A lens grinder who not only developed the microscope but also techniques for tissue examination, describing blood cells, –spermatozoa, and the –striped appearance of skeletal muscle. The microscope helped develop the etiology of diseases and aided in the discovery of the cure for some of them.

19 th -20 th Century –Formation of the cell theory and its implications for a clearer understanding of the structure and functioning of the body

–Johannes Muller ( ) Noted for applying the sciences of physics, chemistry, and psychology to the study of the human body and thus moved A&P into a comparative science

With the development of new technology, research became more specialized, detailed, and complex, –this forced the development of new disciplines and specialties –Ex: histology, cytology, embryology, neurology, gastroenterology, cardiovascular, kinesiology, reproductive physiology, endocrinology

Henry Gray – b –English anatomist and physiologist –Admitted as a Fellow to the Royal Society at 33 years of age (very young!) –Published the definitive “Gray’s Anatomy” in 1858

… and the rest, as they say, “is history”