Applications of genetics Cloning IVF - in vitro fertilisation Stem cells Genetic fingerprinting Genetic engineering Human genome project Gene therapy

IVF hormones trigger ovulation - collected by ultrasound and tube male sperm ejaculated and stored in nutrient solution male sperm + oocyte into petri dish (100,000 :1) or sperm injected into oocyte three days development of embryos two implanted in uterus ISSUES: What happens to unused embryos? - Stem cell research?freeze in liquid nitrogen for later? Destroy? Donate to others?

Cloning Plants Animals Production of genetically identical organisms micropropagation Totipotent - differentiated adult cells give rise to different cells Cut meristem (tip/root areas) or length from shoot cut into small areas = explants sterile, aerated nutient (agar)used callus - mass of undifferentiated ce growth hormones - shoots then roots transplant into sterile soil Embryo cloning - IVF, embryo splitting, surrogates Nuclear transplants - donor cells taken (provide diploid nucleus) unfertilised egg (haploid) from recipient cells fused - egg cell programmed to produce embryo developing embryo implanted = clone of donor

Stem cells Undifferentiated cells which divide to give rise to cells that can become specialised Source = bone marrow; embryonic cells.; umbilical cells Adult tissue repair/replacement e.g. skin damage, blood cells, respiratory/digestive system linings Medical research and treatments e.g. virus growth for vaccines (e.g. flu), monoclonal antibodies Tissue engineering e.g. growth of skin for burns victims, cartilage, blood vessels Therapeutic use in medicine e.g. use of a patients own cells to grow organs e.g. pancreas for diabetics, heart - better than transplants (no rejection); insertion into the brain (Parkinson’s/Alzheimer’s) Cells can be grown in labs with growth factors controlled (similar to cloning Dolly) Ethics - use of embryos, potential of human cloning

Genetic modification Donor DNA plasmid from bacterium/ vector restriction endonucleases ; sticky ends DNA ligases; splicing recombinant DNA cloning Antibiotic resistance marker genes fermentors - fitltration and purification GM crops - transgenic plants e.g. herbicide resistance in soya plants; delayed ripening in tomatoes Inserted by bacteria Products used in medical treatment e.g. insulin, growth hormones Gene therapy (see later) Reverse transcription to produce specific DNA for insertion: mRNA -> cDNA-> DNA reverse transcriptase DNA polymerase Issues: -benefits crops, medical treatments, products not made by other methods. Release into the environment of potential pathogens, resistance into weeds/pathogens,interactions with other genes, ethics e.g. the right to tamper with genotypes in future

Human genome project Identification of the 25,000 genes ( ) Use of markers to identify base sequences of normal genes Identification of mutated genes which may cause genetic diseases e.g. alzheimer’s, CF, diabetes, cancers - establishing effects (diagnosis) Identification of individuals carrying the genes : pre-implantation, prenatal, new-born, pre-symptomatic, carriers (pre-conception) Manufacturing of missing proteins/ designer drugs - genetic engineering

Somatic cell therapygerm cell therapy Insertion of genetic material into affected cells e.g. cystic fibrosis sufferers respiratory cells Insertion of corrective genes into eggs - can be inherited Use of liposomes - enter via the phopholipid bilayer Use of viruses as vectors Genetic engineering to extract genes for producing missing proteins Issues - Genetic counselling Genetic screening Which genes should this be used for? Abortions to avoid passing on the gene? Gene therapy

Genetic fingerprinting Uses - forensic science (identification of criminal), paternity cases, identification of species, evolutionary relationships Restriction endonucleases non-functional DNA = HVR/STR different lengths (unique) electrophoresis - -ve so move to +ve (smallest move fastest) nylon membrane- Southern blotting radioactive/ chemi-luminescent probes X-ray films autoradiograph -> genetic fingerprint DNA source e.g white blood cells PCR - manufacture of multiple copies DNA replication DNA polymerase short DNA pieces = primers (signal to enzymes) target DNA heated to 95°C separate strands cooled to 55°C - primers join complementary bases heat to 70°C - enzyme polymerises second strand repeat Issues:-storage, access,privacy