Professionals and Ethics –Professions –Codes of Ethics –Micro-ethics vs. Macro-ethics –Exercising Social Control at the Macro Level

What is a professional? Ways of using the word: –His/her behaviour was not very professional –That was a professional presentation –Let’s do a professional job The term generally implies good conduct and quality

Definition of a profession “a self-selected, self-disciplined group of individuals who hold themselves out to the public as possessing a special skill derived from training and education and are prepared to exercise that skill in the interest of others”

Characteristics of a profession - occupation that deals with specialized abilities - relationship of trust and confidentiality between practitioner and client - a public obligation - a discharge of duties in the public interest - bound by an ethical code to protect the public - experts organized in concert with other experts

Chapman on power and responsibility Expertise is a form of power Professionalism is an even greater source of power- consensus among experts amplifies the voice of an individual expert. Power of professionals is granted by society Attached to power is responsibility –We try not to give power to irresponsible people –We hold people with power responsible –Conversely, if people are powerless, we usually don’t hold them responsible

Professions and the Social Control of Technology Clearly, professionals play a major role in the development and use of technology: –professionals give expert advice to decision-makers –professionals often are the decision-makers –professionals have strong influence over policy –professionals influence the general public –professionals can set the agenda for research and technology development

Codes of Ethics What are ethics? The rules and ideals for human behaviour. They tell us what we ought to do Why codes of ethics? Can be a major factor in the creation of an ambience in which ethical behaviour is the norm (Unger 1982) Play fundamental role in support or enforcement procedures of professional societies or licensing agencies (Unger 1982) Systematized approach to mediating the conflicts that can occur when one person has responsibilities to different parties (Kriesberg and Herkert 2001)

Codes of Ethics for Engineers 2 Examples: Professional Engineers of Ontario Model Ethics Code by Unger Look for similarities and differences between the two codes What is your overall impression? Is there a difference in the focus of the two codes?

Criticisms / Limitations of Professional Codes Encourage minimal behaviour Self-serving Serve to stifle dissent Run contrary to moral autonomy Regarded as a joke by many professionals Inadequate ethics support provided by professional societies that promulgate the codes Can be difficult to enforce Multiplicity of codes (discipline, university, funding agency, government) -> can lead to confusion Divert attention from macro-ethical problems

Micro-ethics vs. Macro Ethics Definitions Micro-ethics (individual focus) Macro-ethics (societal focus) De George in Roddis (1993) Ethics in engineering: Actions of individual engineers Ethics of engineering: The role of engineers in industry and other organizations, professional engineering societies, and responsibilities of the profession Ladd (1991) Micro-ethics: Professional relationships between individual professionals and other individuals who are their clients, colleagues, employers Macro-ethics: Problems confronting members of a profession as a group in their relationship to society Vanderburg (1995) Microlevel analysis – of individual technologies or practitioners Macrolevel analysis – of technology as a whole

The scope of micro-ethics Honesty, integrity, fairness, loyalty, fidelity to public needs Safeguard and protect Follow codes and bylaws Competence Conflict of interest Etc. Focus: Individual conduct in specific situations “Do no harm” rather than an emphasis on “doing good”

Scope of macro-ethics Emphasis on: Nature and structure of technology Built-in values of technologies Systematization of technology Democratic nature of technologies Nature of decision-making Importance of problem understanding and definition Sharing power / public participation Who makes decisions? Nature of being a professional Professional culture Limitations of being an expert

Exercise / Discussion Consider the three following persons How might each be faced with micro- and macro ethical issues? Clerk in a corporate office High school teacher Family Physician Micro-ethical issues Macro-ethical issues

Using a code of ethics to stress macro-ethical issues International Network of Engineers and Scientists for Global Responsibility (1995)

What are some concrete ways that professionals could better exercise social responsibility at the macro-level? For example: New codes of ethics that stress macro-ethics Introduce new course material into education curriculum

Resources: Chapman, Gary Power, politics and social responsibility. Paper submitted to the conference “Professionals and social responsibility: Conflict or congruence?” University of Waterloo. Ontario, Canada. Di Norcia, Vincent Diverse knowledges and competing interests: An essay on socio-technical problem-solving. Science and Engineering Ethics. 8(1): Kriesberg, Nell and Joe Herkert Professional Responsibility and Codes of Conduct. Module V: Research Ethics Mini Rounds. North Carolina State University Ladd, John The quest for a code of professional ethics: An intellectual and moral confusion. In Ethical Issues in Engineering. Deborah G. Johnson (ed.). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. Unger, Stephen H Controlling Technology: Ethics and the Responsible Engineer. Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Inc. Vanderburg, Willem H Preventive engineering: a strategy for dealing with the negative social and environmental implications of technology. Journal of Professional Issues in Engineering. July.