© Ian D. Rotherham 2011 Historic Development and Evolution of Landscapes An example - Woodland History Summarised Ian D. Rotherham

© Ian D. Rotherham 2011

Landscape Development and Character Natural conditions and history – topography, geology, climate, exposure, aspect, water and wetness, soils, vegetation, fauna Landscape type and character SHAPING LANDSCAPES Potential TIME Influence Human influences – land management – clearance; farming, forestry, houses, industry, factories, roads, railways, canals, air transport etc Sight, [texture, colour, reflectivity, movement etc], Sound, Smell

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Continuous matrix of ‘wildwood’ + areas of non-woodland due to edaphic (soil) factors and grazing impacts of large herbivores; landscape much wetter. Probably less woodland than previously thought and more grassland and wetland – upland and lowland.

© Ian D. Rotherham 2011 More or less isolated woodland blocks Modification of original structure and composition Non-woodland Non-woodland phase Recent plantation Recent semi-natural woodland Ancient plantation Ancient semi-natural Clearance Further Clearance Planting Natural succession to woodland Re-planting often with non- natives Traditional management or neglect allows some ‘wildwood’ features to survive

© Ian D. Rotherham 2011 Recent plantation: Upland conifer woods; urban planting schemes; New community woodlands etc; highways plantings c.1,250,000 ha

© Ian D. Rotherham 2011

Recent semi-natural woods: woods on old heaths, moors, and downs; spontaneous urban commons; post- industrial sites. c.100,000 ha New native woods??

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Ancient plantation: Old coppice re-planted with conifers or broad-leaves; [Note: PAWS] c.350,000 ha

© Ian D. Rotherham 2011 Ancient semi-natural woodland: Old coppice; Old pasture woodland; Upland Caledonian pine forest; Wooded commons. c. 300,000 ha

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Landscape Development and Characterisation Landscape development is influenced by a complex matrix of factors – environmental, human, and historical. These are interwoven though time and space to create ‘landscape’.

© Ian D. Rotherham 2011 SHAPING LANDSCAPES Natural conditions and history – topography, geology, climate, exposure, aspect, water and wetness, soils, vegetation, fauna Sight, [texture, colour, reflectivity, movement etc], Sound, Smell Landscape type and character Human influences – land management – clearance; farming, forestry, houses, industry, factories, roads, railways, canals, air transport etc Sight, [texture, colour, reflectivity, movement etc], Sound, Smell TIME Influence Potential

© Ian D. Rotherham 2011 perceptionsOur perceptions of landscape are hugely individual and affect and influence what each of us sees or experiences as landscape. {See reading from: Richard Muir (1998) – Figures in the Landscape}. Each person sees, or experiences a unique and individual landscape around them. This is influenced by the past as well as the present.

© Ian D. Rotherham 2011 There are numerous ways that attempt to characterise landscape and its development. Natural Areas Countryside Character AreasFrom an environmental perspective is the UK is the concept of ‘Natural Areas’ and from and anthropogenic view are ‘Countryside Character Areas’. Character of England MapCombined these were used to generate the Character of England Map. [See Cooke and Hewston, 1998; and Brooke, 1998; for more details].

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[See the relevant publications of the former Countryside Agency and English Nature for more information on these concepts and their applications]. Try the web sites of both Natural England and particularly the Woodland Trust.

© Ian D. Rotherham 2011 Cultural Landscapes Especially in a country such as Britain, the landscape is a human-shaped creation – from the high moors, to the urban centre. but the landscape itself is shaped by people and their activities over thousands of years Natural factors control and limit the options, but the landscape itself is shaped by people and their activities over thousands of years.

© Ian D. Rotherham 2011

Some Key References Hoskins – The Making of the English Landscape Rackham – The History of the Countryside Melvyn Jones – various – esp. Jones and Rotherham (1998)

© Ian D. Rotherham 2011 [Visit the South Yorkshire Forest web site to see how they characterised and assessed their region and the sub-regional areas or zones] The character maps and zones are all in the Level 4 Resources Room

© Ian D. Rotherham 2011 A Case Study – South Yorkshire’s Woodlands and Wooded Landscapes Introduction

© Ian D. Rotherham 2011 Changing woodland management systems during the last millennium and their ecological impacts Wood Pasture: c.1450 A.D.

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Coppice Management: c A.D.

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The decline of coppicing and conversion of coppice woods to high forest: since c.1850 A.D.

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Summary and Conclusions Woodland cover in South Yorkshire has never been extensive in the last 1000 years. In 1086, at the time of the Domesday Survey, woodlands covered only 13 per cent of the county. Since then, population growth with the extension of cultivated and grazed land and, after c.1840 rapid industrialisation, continued to reduce woodland cover. Today, ancient woodlands cover less than three per cent of the area.

© Ian D. Rotherham 2011 Despite their small extent, woodlands, particularly in the western half of the area, have played a vital part in the initial development of industry in the early middle ages and its subsequent expansion into the modern period.

© Ian D. Rotherham 2011 A number of economic, political and social factors have had a profound impact on the ecology of the ancient woodlands in South Yorkshire: 1. Changing patterns of ownership, from a concentration in the hands of a few large estate owners to a mixed pattern of ownership including a range of smaller private owners, public bodies such as the Forestry Commission, and city, town and parish councils.

© Ian D. Rotherham There has been a change of function since c.1850 from the role of suppliers of timber, wood and bark to the role of suppliers of timber only and then, in a substantial number of cases, to the role of recreational woods/nature reserves.

© Ian D. Rotherham Change of function has been accompanied by a change of structure from coppice-with-standards to high forest and by changes in composition with the introduction of many trees not native to South Yorkshire.

© Ian D. Rotherham The onset of large-scale industrialisation from c.1840, with the proliferation of ‘smoke-stack’ industries, had a negative impact on ancient woods in South Yorkshire, causing the loss of a number of woods, the reduction in size of many others, together with widespread disturbance and pollution. Only since c.1980 has there been a rapid decline of coal mining and heavy industry and a shift to a post-industrial, service economy.

© Ian D. Rotherham Since c.1970 public pressure, organised conservation campaigns and increased research activity have resulted in the widespread recognition of the heritage value of the county’s ancient woods and the resumption of active management.

© Ian D. Rotherham The future of South Yorkshire’s ancient woods looks much better than it did three decades ago. Awareness of their cultural and ecological importance has been raised to a much higher level than at any other time this century and interest in their economic as well as recreational potential has been re-awakened. However, the renewed interest in the sustainable management of these ancient woodlands is just the beginning; the challenge is to sustain it in the medium and long term.

© Ian D. Rotherham 2011 Summary Table1

© Ian D. Rotherham 2011 Summary Table 2

© Ian D. Rotherham 2011 But …………!!!!!????? cultural severanceProblems of cultural severance

© Ian D. Rotherham 2011